his101cd

HIS 101 – Western Civilization I
Lecture 6 -- The Roman Republic

I. Ancient Rome

Geography of Italy

The Italian peninsula begins south of the Alps
The Alps provided some protection from outside invasion from the north, especially during the winter months, but this protection was by no means complete
Of far greater consequence to the history of the Italian peninsula are the Apennine Mountains, which begin in the far northwest near Genoa and run down the center of the peninsula all the way to the southern end of the "boot"

The Appenines vary in width from 30-60 miles wide, sometimes rising as high as 9,000 feet in some places to mere foothills in others
Although the mountains are very rugged, there a number of valleys with lakes and small rivers and streams that provided fertile land
The size and scope of the Appenines split the early inhabitants of Italy in numerous and diverse groups

Much of the early history of Italy consisted of fighting between the peoples living in the harsh conditions of the mountains and those who led an easier and more prosperous life in the lowlands and plains on either side of the Appenines

Early inhabitants of Italy

Early in the Bronze Age the first Indo-European invaders of Italy displaced the older inhabitants of the peninsula--who were related to the native populations of Spain and Gaul
Toward the end of the Bronze Age, various groups who spoke Italic dialects arrived. These included the Umbrians, Samnites, and Latins
Among the settlements of the Latins was the small village of Rome on the river Tiber, which was probably first inhabited sometime around 1400 B.C.--although it would not remain continuously inhabited until after 753
With the dawning of the Iron Age about 1,000, a shared culture (which we call Villanovan today after artifacts found at the ruins near Villanova) began to develop among many of the tribes of central Italy

Etruscans, Romans, and Greeks

During the first millenia B.C., 3 different groups dominated the central portion of the Italian peninsula. They were the Etruscans, the Greeks, and the Latins (especially the Romans). A fourth group, the peoples of the mountainous regions of the Appenines, unsuccessfully tried to extend their influence
Etruscans

One of the first dominant groups to arise in central Italy was the Etruscans, in the area then called Etruria and now known as Tuscany (the region between the Tiber and Arno rivers)

Although there is still much debate over the origins of the Etruscans, most scholars believe they descended from the Villanovan culture sometime in the 8th and 7th centuries
Ancient sources claimed that the Etruscans had come from somewhere in southwest Asia, probably from part of what is now Turkey
Their language is not Indo-European in origin (which gave rise to idea they migrated from another area) but their artifacts follow the same pattern as the Villanovans and later the Latins

By the mid-seventh century, the Etruscans had developed a rich and technologically sophisticated society dominated by an aristocracy--basically only two classes in Etruria: 1) aristocracy (which later included a small number of wealthy merchants and craftsmen as well as those "noble" born) and 2) serfs

There was a deep division between the governing class and the serfs, which led to unrest in a number of Etruscan towns from time to time

Etruscan Commerce

The Etruscans were heavily involved in trade throughout the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean
During the 7th and 6th centuries, three principal trade rivals--the Etruscans, Greeks, and Carthaginians--dominated all commerce in the region
These three groups formed a series of shifting alliances with one another in an effort to gain as much control over trade as possible
Example. In 540, the Etruscans, aided by the Carthaginians, drove the Greeks from the island of Corsica. In return, the Etruscans gave the Carthaginians control over the island of Sardinia (which had rich sources of iron and other minerals)
Seventy years later, the Greeks destroyed the Etruscan fleet--ending any influence the latter had in southern Italy

Impact of trade on Etruscan culture

The trade brought the Etruscans into contact with many cultural influences from outside of Italy
They proved to be especially receptive of these influences and were adept at integrating them into their local framework
The Etruscans borrowed the most from the Greeks in areas such as the arts, government, and religion

In the arts, they imported huge quantities of fine Grecian pottery in exchange for metal
Their system of government borrowed from Greek ideas of the polis, as they created a number of city-states linked together in a federation
In religion, the Etruscans developed the Triad of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva--gods based on Zeus, Hera, and Athena

Although the Etruscans created a society that dominated the northern portion of central Italy during the period from 800-500 BC, they disappeared as a dominant force after that period.

In 510, the people of Rome threw out the Etruscans who had controlled them for over a century. In 423, the Samnites (a mountain people in south-central Italy) captured their colonies along the southwest coast. Around 390 B.C., the Gauls (a Celtic people from what is now France) crossed the Po River and invaded the northern portions of Etruria. During the 5th and 4th centuries, the Romans conquered the principal Etruscan cities one by one.
By the beginning of the first century B.C., Etruscans had been absorbed into the Roman state and given full rights as Roman citizens.

Reason for the Etruscan down fall can be partly explained by their social system

The rigidity of the Etruscan social system (aristocrats who ruled and slaves and peasants who served) worked fine during the relatively stable 7th and 6th centuries
However, when faced with the upheavals and rapid changes of the next few centuries, the small number of wealthy Etruscan families proved unable to hold their own against those invading their territories.

The Greeks

The earliest Greek inhabitants of Italy came during the 8th century

The Greeks who colonized the peninsula came as representatives of their individual polis, not as a unified Greek people

Pattern of Settlement

Most Greek settlements in Italy were along the coast, at locations based on the excellence of harbors and for their rich farming lands
Between 700 and 500 BC, the coastal regions of southern Italy and Sicily became dotted with Greek colonies--the region became known as Magna Graecia (or Greater Greece)
The colonists quickly began to lay out towns in a formal manner adopted from their home poleis--this creation of a formal pattern for towns would affect the ways in which both the Etruscans and Romans formed their towns and cities

Impact of Greek settlement on Italy

The Greeks in Italy were heavily involved in commerce with the native populations, interacting with them on a regular basis--Greecian pottery was in high demand among the native Italian peoples
As a result, Greecian cultural ideas began to spread throughout the peninsula rapidly
Greek ideas, religious beliefs, and taste in art were so deeply permeate parts of Iron Age Italy that it difficult to tell what had been created by the native peoples and the Greeks

Although the Greeks would control only small portions of the peninsula between 8th and the middle of the 3rd century BC, their influence would be noticed by all living in the region

Early Romans

Although traditionally, the founding date of Rome was 753 BC, recent archaeological research has revealed that a small community existed on the Tiber River site as early as 1400.
The traditional founding date coincides with what archaeologists believe is the time when Rome became inhabited on a continual basis.
Lifestyle of early Romans

Like other Latins in the region, the first Romans were probably farmers and shepherds
They lived in simple huts on top of the seven hills that surrounded the town in a fashion similar to the other Latin tribes
The fertile land in the valley was used primarily for grazing lifestock
As the community grew, the slopes of the hills, which had previously been used only for burial sites, became inhabited
Over the next century, the Romans drained some of the land in the valley along the Tiber river and began to settle there as well
During this period, Romans began to have increased contact with the outside world--importing pottery and metalwork from nearby Etruscan cities

The city was ruled by a monarchy, having 7 kings (both Latin and Etruscan) during the period between its founding and the overthrow of the Etruscans in 510 BC
Etruscan Rule
The Etruscans had conquered Rome in 616 while it was little more than a small country town

The new rulers built the town into a city, draining the marshy central valley and building new temples, shrines, and roads
Etruscan craftsmen introduced and developed new skills and established guilds, including those of the bronze workers, goldsmiths, and carpenters
Most importantly, it was under Etruscan rule that the Romans came into contact for the first time with the outside world--through Etruscan trading contacts.
From the simple village life of a small community under the leadership of tribal chiefs they took their place in the large world around them

It took only a century for the Romans to learn the principles of Etruscan technology, expel their former rulers, and begin their climb to power

II. The Roman Republic

Roman Conquest of Italy

In the years following the expulsion of the Etruscans and the formation of the Roman Republic, the Romans fought numerous wars with their neighbors on the Italian peninsula
During these wars they showed they possessed abundant military and diplomatic skills

They quickly learned the valued of forming alliances and providing leadership for their allies--the earliest alliances were with the other Latin towns nearby, which provided the armies with a large supply of manpower

The earliest wars were with neighboring groups not allied with them
Cincinnatus

In one of these, a Roman named Cincinnatus arose to legendary status
He was called upon to assume the office of dictator--At that time, a Roman dictator was a legitimate government official who was given ultimate powers for a specified period of time
Roman officials found Cincinnatus working on his small farm and appealed to him to accept the office. He agreed.
Fifteen days later, after he had defeated the enemy (the Acqui), he returned to his farm.
Cincinnatus personified the ideal Roman citizen--a man of simplicity, who put his duty to Rome before any consideration of personal interest or wealth

The growth of Roman power was slow but steady

It took them nearly a century to drive the Etruscans out of all of Latium
They turned next to conquering Etruria and other nearby regions
When they conquered an area, the land was given to Romans--which provided additional resources for Rome's growing population
Roman conquest continued steadily until 390 BC, when the invading Gauls swept a Roman army out of the way and sacked the city itself

Since the Gauls were more interested in loot than land, they left after receiving a ransom of 1,000 pounds of gold
Over the next century, the Romans rebuilt their city and recovered their losses

They also reorganized their army into legions--groups of 5,000 men--capable of fighting on a variety of terrains
They continued their expansion on the Italian peninsula

The biggest war they fought during this period was with the Samnite, a people occupying the southern portion of the Appenine mountains
Although the Samnites were a formidable enemy, and inflicted serious losses on the Romans, the superior organization and manpower of the Romans won out in the end
Following the victory over the Samnites, Rome stood unchallenged for the first time in its history

Rome's success in diplomacy and politics was as important as its military victories.

Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not simply conquer and dominate--Instead they shared with other Italians both political power and degrees of Roman citizenship
The Romans were a practical people instead of idealists--When they found a treaty or political arrangement that worked, they used it whenever possible. When it didn't, they tried something else
This allowed them to build up a network of alliances and treaties with other peoples and states
To some, such as the other Latin cities, they granted full Roman citizenship. In other instances, they granted citizenship without the right to vote or hold office
The latter peoples were subject to Roman taxes and calls for military service, but were allowed to run their own local affairs
By extending their citizenship to others, Romans took Italy into a partnersip which strenghtened the state, gave it additional manpower and wealth, and laid the foundation for the Roman Empire

The Roman State

In the early republic, social divisions determined the shape of politics

Political power was in the hands of the aristocracy--the patricians--who were wealthy landowners

Patrician families formed clans that dominated the affairs of states, provided military leadership in times of war, and monopolized knowledge of law and legal procedure

The common people were known as the plebians

They had few of the patricians' advantages, even though some possessed great wealth that rivaled that of the patricians
Most plebians were poor--they were artisans, small farmers, and landless urban dwellers

Although the plebians were free citizens and had a voice in politics, they were overshadowed by the patricians

The Government

Magistrates (all serve one year terms)

At the head of the Roman government were two Consuls--the chief officials responsible for administering the laws

The consuls were elected by all adult males under a formula that gave most of the voting power to those in the patrician class
A consul served for one year, meaning that no one held power for extending periods of time

Under the consuls were a number of lesser officials who oversaw day-to-day operations

Quaestors ran the public treasury and prosecuted criminals in the public courts
Praetors stood in the place of the consuls when the latter were away from Rome. The dealt primarily with the administration of justice
Censors supervised public morals, determined who lawfully could sit in the Senate, registered citizens, and handled public contracts

The heart of the Roman government was the Senate

Senatus Populus que Romanus or "the senate and people of Rome" summed up the political existence of the Romans
During the republic, the senate advised the consuls and other magistrates that ran the day to day operations of Roman government
Because the senate sat year after year, while magistrates changed annually, it provided stability and continuity
It also served as a reservoir of experience and knowledge
While the senate technically could not pass laws, only offer advice, the prestige of the senate meant that its advice came to have the force of law

Social Conflict in Rome

The early history of the Roman Republic was enveloped in great social conflict, a period we refer to as the Struggle of the Orders

This conflict pitted the patricians against the plebians in a struggle for power
The plebians wanted real political representation and safeguards against patrician domination

Rome’s early wars gave the plebians the leverage they needed--Rome’s survival depended on the army and the army needed the plebians

In 494 BC, the plebians staged a general strike, walking out of Rome and refusing to serve in the army
This strike led the patricians to grant a series of concessions to the plebians over the next 200 years

First, the plebians won the right to meet in an assembly of their own, called the concilium plebis and to pass ordinances that affected themselves

At the same time, they also received their own magistrates, called tribunes.
Tribunes had the power to veto any act of patrician magistrates (including consuls) or of the senate--Tribunes were well protected against physical harm from the patricians. The Plebians took an oath to kill anyone who killed a tribune
The plebians also won the right to marry into the patrician class

Plebians next turned to the law

Only patricians knew what the law was, and only they could argue cases before the courts--this meant they often used the law to their own advantage
The plebians pushed to have the law written down and published--this resulted in the Laws of the 12 tablets, so called because all the criminal and civil law was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets--the plebians also got the patricians to publish their legal procedures (how the courts, etc. operated) as well

In the middle of the 4th century BC, the plebians gained further power by forcing the patricians to agree to make one of the two annual counsel seats open to plebians
About 80 years later, they gained basic equality with the patricians with the passage of a law called the lex Hortensia, which gave the resolutions of the concilium plebis the force of law for patricians and plebians alike
On the surface, it appeared the plebians had gained a significant voice in Roman politics

Patronage (Clientage)

A key element of the Roman political system was the concept of patronage (or clientage)

This was an archaic form of personal dependence which placed the client in the position of being an inferior under the protection of a man more powerful than he (the patron)
In return for the patron’s protection, the client rendered certain services and honors (voting, showing deference) to the patron
Patrons frequently depended on the clients for votes for office.
Patrons often were responsible for finding jobs for their clients or helping them out in times of trouble. Those living in the cities often doled out food to their clients.

This system of mutual obligation was enforced by public opinion and tradition
If a patron reneged on his responsibilities, he could be forced out of office (or even killed in some cases) by his clients

Age of Overseas Conquest

Once the republic became stable and the internal problems settled, Rome began a series of conquests both at home and abroad.

These conquests were vital for the current health of the republic because it permitted the poorer plebians to gain land and wealth--generally through service in the army
Roman conquest was not done for ideological reasons (not to make the world a better or more Roman place), they were done for wealth

Rome’s imperialism took two forms

In the west, the home to fierce tribes of barbarians, Romans used naked aggression to conquer new territory in areas such as Spain and later Gaul
The fighting in these regions was fieres and savage, and gains came slowly
In the eastern world of the Hellenistic states, Rome tried to avoid annexing territory since these regions were already heavily populated and would have become Rome’s responsibility

The first wars involved conquering the rest of the Italian peninsula

In 282 BC, the Romans became worried about the Greek colony of Tarentum (Tarranta) which had come under attack by another Greek king named Pyrrhus.
The Tarrantans called upon Rome for help, and it obliged
Pyrrhus, a relative of Alexander the Great, won two furios battles over the Romans, but lost heavily in the process--thus the term Pyrrhic victory. He stated that another victory over the Romans would be the death of his army.
In 275, the weight of the Roman armies finally allowed them to drive Pyrrhus from Italy

The Punic Wars

Upon driving Pyrrhus from Italy, the Romans turned their sites toward the island of Sicily
So had the Carthaginians--the Phoenician colony in North Africa which had long dominated the western Mediterranean
The struggle for Sicily brought about a series of wars between Rome and Carthage
First Punic War

A decade after defeating Pyrrhus (264), the Romans embarked on their first war with Carthage
The Romans learned quickly that they could not gain control of Sicily without controlling the seas (something they did not like to do)

After capturing two Carthaginian ships that had washed up during a storm, the Romans copied these ships and made a navy
The Romans then fought a series (7) of naval battles against Carthage and won all but one (they also lost 2 fleets to storms)

In 241, the Romans took possession of Sicily and forced the Carthaginians to submit (also demanding a high ransom from the city)

The peace between the two powers remained fragile as each jockeyed for position, with Rome taking Sardinia and Corsica from the Carthaginians and Carthage moving into Spain

The Carthaginian takeover of most of Spain was led by Hamilcar Barca.

Hamilcar's conquest helped Carthage rebuild much of its power
He was helped by his son Hannibal -- Hamilcar had made all of his family swear to alway remain an enemy to Rome

The Romans moved an army into the northeastern portion of Spain to stop the Carthaginians from advancing any further

Second Punic War

In 221, Hannibal, who now commanded Carthaginian forces in Spain, came into conflict with Roman efforts to expand their territory there--the Romans declared war, beginning the Second (and longest) Punic War
Three years later, Hannibal made his 1,000 mile march over the Alps into Italy
Even though Hannibal’s forces were greatly depleted by the march, he and his men quickly won a series three battles over the Romans
In 216, he won one of the greatest military victories ever at Cannae, destroying a force of 80,000 Romans
Still, his only chance at completely defeating Rome lay in getting Rome’s allies to desert

Many did choose to side with Hannibal, and he received additional help from the king of Macedonia
However, Rome retained its key allies close to home--this is where granting them Roman citizenship earlier paid off.

Over the next decade, Hannibal controlled much of Italy, but was never able to muster the manpower, resources, or equipment to capture the city.
By 204 BC, Romans led by Scipio Africanus, a general with almost as much talent as Hannibal and with far greater resources, would invade Carthage

This forced the Carthiginians to recall Hannibal and his army home
In 202 BC, Scipio demolished the Carthiginian army at the battle of Zama and reduced Carthage to a dependent of Rome

Rome would launch a third war against Carthage about 50 years later and destroy the city. At the same time, they took their revenge on the Macedonians who had assisted Hannibal’s efforts to capture Rome, and would conquer that region and the rest of Greece

Everyday Life in the Roman Republic

Focus on the lives of two men--Marcus Cato and Scipio Amelianus--who represent the viewpoints of those who strive to continue the traditional rural way of life and those who embrace the new urban life
The Rural World--Marcus Cato and family as example

Marcus Cato (Cato the Elder)--Born a plebian, his talent and energy carried him into the highest offices of Rome

he cherished the old virtues and consistently imitated the older Roman ways

Paternalism

Like most Romans, Cato had very strong ties to his family
He was the paterfamilias, the oldest and dominant male of the family

The paterfamilias held nearly absolute power over the lives of his wife and children as long as he lived
He could legally kill his wife for adultery or divorce her at will
He could kill his children or sell them into slavery. He could also force them to marry against their will
Until the paterfamilias died, his sons could not legally own property--At his death the wife and children of the paterfamilias inherited his property

Despite this immense power, the paterfamilias did not necessarily act alone or arbitrarily
To deal with important family matters he usually called a council of the adult males, giving them a chance to air their views in support of or in opposition to any planned actions by the patterfamilias
Women had no formal part in these decisions, but it is probable that they exercised an important role behind the scenes
Although the concept of paterfamilias was very harsh in theory, the lack of complaints about the system indicates that its actual practice was more open

Typical Day

Morning

Romans like Cato and his family began the day early in the morning, especially in the summer, to avoid having to work in the heat of the day
They would eat a light breakfast, typically nothing more than cheese and bread, before starting work
Men’s work
Cato, who was a lawyer as well as farmer, often walked to the marektplace of the nearby town and represented anyone who wanted his legal help
He received no fees for his services, but did put his neighbors in his debt
Under the Roman customs of clientage, this meant that Cato’s clients owed him their political support or votes whenever he asked for them

Women’s life

Cato’s wife (her name remains unknown) served as the matron of the family--a position that brought her authority and respect within the household
While Cato was in town, she ran the household--spinning and weaving the clothes the family wore, supervising the domestic slaves, planning the meals, and devoting a good deal of time to the children
Although the women in some wealthy families employed slaves as wet nurses, Cato’s wife, like most Roman women, handled the maternal duties herself

Children

Roman children remained under the care of the matron of the household until they reached around age of 7
Many kept pets, especially dogs, which were very popular as companions and as house guards
The children played many games, especially games of chance with dice
By the age of seven, boys and girls began going their separate ways--girls remaining under the care of the matron and beginning to learn the duties expected of women and boys beginning their formal education (although some girls in wealthy families were also educated)

Midday

At midday, the rural Romans took their main meal
Meal typically consisted of bread made from wheat or barley, porridge made with milk or water, and might also include turnips, cabbage, olives, and beans
The primary source of meat was pork--fish was too expensive for everyone except those who lived near the sea (Cato claimed that a fish cost more than a cow)
The typical beverage would be wine mixed with water

After the midday meal, any Roman who could took a nap, especially in the summer when the midday sun in the Mediterranean was so fierce
Slaves, artisans, and hired laborers usually continued to work straight on until nightfall
Agriculture

The agricultural year in Rome’s rural areas followed the sun and the stars--the Roman farmer looked to the sky to determine when to plant, weed, shear sheep, and perform other chores
Spring was the season for plowing--Roman farmers plowed their fields at least twice and preferably 3 times (the third time to cover the seeds and create furrows to allow excess water to drain)
The plows were crude, straight edged plows pulled by oxen and donkeys
Farmers collected the dung from the animals to use as fertilizer--also grew lupines and beans to also use a fertilizer
The main money crops were wheat and flax (for cloth), also forage crops like clover and alfalfa
Prosperous farmers like Cato would raise olive trees for oil and grapevines for the production of wine
Cato and his neighbors would harves their cereal crops in the summer and the olives and grapes in the early fall
Harvests varied according to the soil, but farmers could usually expect yields of 5 1/2 bushels of wheat or 10 1/2 bushels of barley per acre.

Slavery

An influx of slaves resulted from Rome’s wars and conquests--including prisoners from Spain, Africa, the Hellenistic east and even some blacks and other prisoners from Hannibal’s army
Romans took the attitude that slavery was misfortune that befell some people, but it was not based on racial theories--a black african slave would be treated no worse or no better than a Spanish slave
Manumission

For talented slaves, Romans held out the hope of eventual freedom through manumission--the freeing of individual slaves by their masters.
Those who were manumitted became full Roman citizens.
Practice became so common that laws were passed to limit the manumissions.

Treatment of slaves

Slaves were entirely their master's property, to be treated in any way the owner saw fit
While some slaveholders were practical enough to realize they could get more out of slaves by treating them decently, others treated their slaves viciously
In Sicily, owners bought slaves in huge numbers, branded them for identification, put them in irons, and often made them go without food or clothing

Slave rebellions

Harsh treatment of slaves sometimes led to slave rebellions
In 135 BC, Sicilian slaves rebelled aginst their masters, putting many of the most brutal to death
Spartacus

From 73 BC, a Roman slave by the name of Spartacus (a Thracian captured in war) led a group of 70 gladiators in revolt against Rome
They set up a base on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius and attracted so many followers that they were able to defeat a series of Roman military expeditions
The rebellion spread throughout southern Italy over the next two years
Finally a Roman army defeated and killed Spartacus in 71 BC
Around 6,000 of the surviving slaves were crucified along the 132 miles of the Via Appia between Capua and Rome

Religion

For Cato and most other Romans, religion played an important part in life
Originally the Romans thought of the gods as invisible, shapeless natural forces--only through the influence of the Etruscans and Greeks did Roman deities take on a human form

Jupiter, the sky god, and his wife Juno became the Roman equivalent of Zeus and Hera
Mars was god of war (same as Ares), but also guaranteed the fertility of the farm and protected it from danger

Gods of the Romans were not loving and personal, but stern, powerful, and aloof.

However, so long as the Romans honored the cults of their gods, they could expect divine favor
To keep favor with the gods, the Romans carried out a number of festivals throughout the year

Along with the great gods, the Romans believed that spirits haunted the fields, forests, crossroads, and even the home itself

Some of these spirits were hostile; only magic could ward them off
Spirits of the dead, like ghosts in modern movies, frequented places where they had lived--they had to be placated, but were ordinarily not harmful
The poet Ovid wrote: "The spirits of the dead ask for little. They are more grateful for piety than for an expensive gift."
One of the numerous festivals in the Roman calendar was the Lemuria--a time in May when ghosts from the family, particularly of those who had died young, might return to haunt their kin
Ovid tells how every householder arose at midnight and walked through his domain, spitting out nine black beans and proclaiming: “with these I ransom me and mine.” The ghosts then ate the beans and, while looking away, the householder washed his hands, beat a gond, and cried nine times: “ancestral ghosts, depart.”

The Urban World--Scipio Aemilianus

The old fashioned ideals that Cato represented came into conflict with a new spirit of wealth and leisure as the spoils of war from the Mediterranean world poured into Rome, making it a great city
Urban life in Rome underwent significant changes and became less austere
Spoils of war went to build baths, theaters, and other places of amusement as Roman and Italian townspeople began to spend more time on leisure pursuits
Romans developed new tastes and a liking for the Greek culture, literature, and language--it became common for an educated Roman to speak both Latin and Greek
Hellenism dominated the cultural life of Rome in the last two centuries BC
Horace, the poet, summed it up by stating: "Captive Greece captured her rough conqueror and introduced the arts into rustic Latium."
Scipio Aemilianus

One of the most devoted fans of the Hellenist culture was Scipio Aemilianus--the son of Scipio Africanus and the general who destroyed Carthage in the 3rd Punic War
Scipio realized that Rome was no longer a small city on the Tiber, but the capital of the world. He felt that Romans had to abandon their old ways and adapt themselves to a position of leadership
He broke with the past in the conduct of his political career, choosing a more personal style of politics that reflected his onw views and faced head on the broader problems tha tthe success of Rome had brought to its people
Scipio embraced Hellenism wholeheartedly
He represented, perhaps more than anyone else of his day, the new Roman--imperial, cultured, and independent
Scipio’s education

As a boy, Scipio obtained the traditional Roman training, learning to read and write Latin and becoming acquainted with the law. He also mastered the fundamentals of rhetoric, learned to throw the javelin, fight in armor, and how to ride a horse.
Later, Scipio learned Greek and became an avid Hellenist. The Roman historian Polybius actively encouraged him in his study of Greek culture and in his intellectual pursuits
In his later life, Scipio’s love of Greek learning and philosophy became legendary as he actively promoted the spread of Hellenism in Roman society--becoming the center of the Scipionic Circle, a small group of Greek and Roman artists, philosophers, historians, and poets.

Conservatives like Cato tried to stem the rising tide of Hellenism, but those like Scipio carried the day and helped make the heritage of Greece an integral factor in Roman life

Hellenism and the Arts

The Roman conquest of the Hellenistic East resulted in wholesale confiscation of Greek paintings and sculpture to be used in Roman temples, public buildings and homes
In addition, Roman artists copied many aspects of Greek art
In literature, Greek classics were translated into Latin

The poet Ennius translated a number of Euripides’ tragedies for the Roman stage, the playwright Plautus borrowed most of the ideas for his comedies from the Greeks as well

Still, while all of early Roman literature was derived from the Greeks, it managed in time to speak in its own voice to the Roman public

Leisure

The conquest of the Mediterranean world brought the Romans leisure, and Hellenism influenced how they spent their free time
During the 2d century BC, Romans adopted the Greek custom of daily bathing, which became an important part of the day
In the early Republic, Romans bathed infrequently, particularly in the winter

But with the influence of Greek ideas, large buildings containing pools and exercise areas went up in great numbers--the baths became an essential part of the Roman city
Architects built intricate systems of aqueducts to suppply the bathing establishments with water
Conservative Romans railed against this Greek custom, calling it a waste of time and encouraging idleness
The Roman baths were more than just a place to wash the body--they contained gymnasia, hot-air rooms to induce a good sweat and pools of hot and cold water to finish the actual bathing. They also included snack bars and halls where people chatted and read
The baths were social important places where men and women went to see and be seen--Social climbers tried to talk to the “right people” and get dinner invitations, politicians took advantage of the occassion to discuss the business of the day
Despite the protests of conservatives and moralists, the baths provided people--rich and poor--with places for clean and healthy relaxation

Eating

The eating habits of urban dwellers changed during this period
The main meal of the day shifted from midday to evening

Dinner became a more elaborate meal and dinner parties became fashionable

Although Scipio Aemilianus detested fat people, more and more Romans began to eat excessively

Lavish dinner parties with all sorts of delicacies became a way to display one’s wealth and status
After a course of olives and vegetables, came the main course of meat, fish, or fowl--pig was the favorite (a whole suckling pick might be stuffed with sausage
lucky guests might even get to dine on peacock or ostrich--each served with rich sauces
Dessert typically consisted of fruits
Wine was served with the meal--During this period, the practice of using period vintage wines became popular

Although the wealthy dined lavishly and gorged themselves whenever they could, poor artisans and workers could rarely afford rich meals

Their typical eating habits closely resembled those of Cato
They too, occasionally spent generously on food, especially during major festivals

III. The Collapse of the Republic

The Late Republic (133-31 BCE)

the wars of conquest created serious problems for the Romans (particularly in area of politics)
the constitution of the republic was designed to govern a small city-state, not a large empire

sweeping changes had to be made to make the Roman government serve the needs of an empire
a system of provincial administration had to be created
governors and other officials had to be chosen to fill these new positions
taxes needed to be collected
the state had to provide for an ever growing army

Economic problems

the Punic Wars had cost Rome far more than it had benefitted

the wars had left the Italian countryside in a shambles and the various armies had almost totally disrupted agriculture in some areas
Rome's later conquests in the east had brought problems as well as much needed wealth

the major problem was a combination of a small group of wealthy men owning most of the land and slavery

Roman soldiers returning from the war often found their family farms in ruins--many were unwilling to put the effort into reclaiming the land and sold their property
a small percentage of wealthy people bought up much of the land to create vast estates--creating a system known as latifundia
as slaves became more available at lower costs (from all the prisoners captured in the wars), wealthier Romans began to use slave labor instead of renting out their land to plebians
this forced many plebians off the land and left them dependent on the government for food and shelter
Rome bascially develops an almost permanent class of unemployed workers during this period

many of the poor became restless and loudly voiced their displeasure (at times, even rioting against the government)
The biggest problem facing Rome though was its system of military service
Rome required its soldiers to be landowners (the idea being that arming poor, propertyless people could lead to revolts)
But with land being so scarce, the number of people eligible to serve dropped dramatically, leading to the possibility of making conscription into the army universal

The rise of tyrants

The Gracchi

Tiberius Gracchus

One Roman who recognized the problems of the peasants and urban poor was an aristocrat named Tiberius Gracchus

Tiberius noted that Rome's soldiers were losing their land while fighting the city's wars
While touring Etruria, he noticed that most of the land was empty of people, but those that were there were foreign slaves or hired workers

Tiberius' efforts at reform

Upon being elected tribune in 133 BCE, Tiberius proposed to take public land that was being used by the poor and dividing it up among the poor
He used the concilium plebis to bypass the Senate and get his reform passed

As a result of his actions and his growing popularity, a number of aristocrats (many of them Senators) conspired with the chief priest of Rome to kill Tiberius
They formed a mob and killed him and 300 of his followers in the Forum
This act spelled the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic--political discourse was now replaced with violence.

Marius Gracchus

A few years later, Tiberius' brother, Marius, took up the cause of reform

He worked to help the urban poor by getting laws passed to provide them with grain
Marius also proposed to send many of the city's poor (Rome's population topped 750,000--maybe a million people at the time) to form colonies in southern Italy
This would help the poor start a new life and also rid Rome of many unproductive people

However, Marius Gracchus suffered the same fate as his brother as senators murdered him (121 BCE) and 3,000 of his supporters.

Gaius Marius

In 107 BCE, Gaius Marius became consul--unsusual in that he was not from a traditional patrician family
Marius reformed the Roman army to allow propertyless men to serve, thus tapping Rome's vast supply of unemployed men
When Marius led the troops into battle, he promised them land at the end of their enlistment
The senate refused to support this move however, setting the stage for further troubles
Marius was now a general with an army of men whose chief loyalty was to him instead of Rome

Sulla and Civil War

In 88 BCE, Rome began its descent into civil war as two generals (Gaius Marius and Sulla) began to fight over control of the military

Sulla led his army into Rome to overturn the Senate, then marched eastward for a campaign
While he was gone, Marius led his army into Rome and overthrew Sulla's supporters
When Sulla returned to Rome in 83 BCE, he defeated the supporters of Marius and massacred them
Although Sulla resotred constitutional government, too much damage had been done--violence was now the main political tool in Rome

Crassus and Pompey seize power

Crassus and Pompey, the two generals who defeated the revolt of Spartacus and the slaves, returned to Rome after their victory and forced the Senate to name them consuls
Pompey then had the senate pass laws that basically placed him above the law

Julius Caesar

In 59 BCE, the Roman general who finally conquered all of Spain for the Romans, Julius Caesar, returned to Rome and demanded an alliance with Pompey and Crassus

The three men formed what became known as the First Triumverate
Shortly afterward, Caesar took his army and conquered all of Gaul

By this time the Triumverate had collapsed, with the death of Crassus and resulting strain in the relations between Caesar and Pompey

In 50 BCE, Caesar made the decision to march on Rome and seize power--"crossing the Rubicon" which was the boundary line between Gaul and Roman territory
The decisoin led to a long and bloody civil war that lasted until 45 BCE and the defeat of Pompey's forces

Caesar's reforms

One of his first moves was to extend full Roman citizenship to most Italians
He also set up at least 20 colonies throughout Gaul, Spain, and Rome--sending 80,000 unemployed and veterans to spread Roman civilization throughout the Mediterannean
He also gained nominal control over Egypt through his mistress, Queen Cleopatra

In 44 BCE, another group of senators who did not like the reforms (or Cleopatra) assassinated him on the floor of the Senate (et tu Brute')

Civil War and the rise of Augustus

The assassanation of Caesar led to another round of civil war

Caesar's grandnephew and adopted son (Octavian) joined with Marc Antony and Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate
These three led the army and hunted down the murderers of Caesar, but in the process, Octavian and Antony came into conflict with one another
in 33 BCE, Octavian had Antony branded a traitor and outlaw
two years later, the Roman forces defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra in Greece (leading to the death of both)

Octavian's victory basically put an end to the age of Civil Wars that had begun with Sulla

In 27 BCE, a grateful senate voted to give Octavian the name Augustus for his successes
the reign of Augustus would greatly change the course of Rome