I.  The Early Empire

     Augustan Principate
          In 31 BC, Octavian (who became known as Augustus) ended the civil wars that had plagued Rome for the past
          50 years
               His first task was to restore order to the system of government
               Although he made some effort to restore the Republic, the powers he delegated to the Senate were
               insufficient for that body to carry out its assigned duties
               Augustus himself claimed the position of princpes civitatis or “First Citizen of the State.”
               Technincally, this position gave him no more power than any other magistrate in the government, simply
               acknowledged the fact that Augustus was the most distinguished of all Roman citizens
               His real power lay in the magisterial positions he held
                    consul (for a number of years)
                    tribunica potestas which gave him the full power of the tribunes and allowed him to call the senate
                    into session, present legislation to the people, and defend their rights
                    he also became the pontifex maximus, the chief religious offical of the state
                    imperator -- commander of the Roman army
                         Augustus governed the provinces where troops were needed for defense--the frontiers were
                         his special concern as Roman soldiers struggled to hold the Germanic tribes at arms length
                         Augustus made sure that Rome went to war only at his command
                         he controlled the deployment of the Roman army and paid its wages
                         He never shared control of the army, thus avoiding the problems with the army that the old
                         senate had created for itself
                    Through these offices, Augustus creates the position of emperor
          The army under Augustus
               Augustus also changed the army by making it a permanent professional force
                    Soldiers received regular and standard training under career officers who advanced in rank
                    according to experience, ability, valor, and length of service
                    Legions were transfered from place to place as the need arose
               By making the army professional, Augustus forged a reliable tool for the defense of the empire
                    The army could also act against the central authority (as had happened a number of times in the late
                    Republic), but the fact that men could make a career of the army meant that the army became a
                    recognized institution of government and that its soldiers
                    The very size of the army was a special problem for Augustus, numbering in the hundreds of
                    thousands of men--far more than were necessary to maintain peace
                    The problem of too many soldiers had plagued the late Republic, so Augustus had to find some one
                    to deal with the problem
                         He did so by using the soldiers (and former soldiers) to colonize the territory that Rome had
                         conquered--Africa, Sicily, Macedonia, Spain, Greece, and Gaul all saw Roman colonies
                         spring up
                         These veterans took with them their Roman language and culture wherever they
                         settled--making the soldiers a significant tool in the spread of Roman ways throughout the
                         Mediterranean
                         Unlike the Greek colonies, which were independent from their original polis, the Roman
                         colonies remained an integral part of the imperial system
          Roman Administration of the Provinces
               To get an accurate idea of the total population of the Roman empire, in 28 B.C., Augustus ordered that a
               census be taken--the population numbered somewhere around 85-90 million people
                    Out of this population, 3/4ths lived in the provinces captured by Rome
               Augustus put the administration of these provinces on an ordered basis and improved its functioning
                    He believed that the cities of the empire should look after their own affairs and encouraged local
                    self-government and urbanism
                    Augustus respected local customs and ordered the provincial governors to do the same
          The Cult of Roma
               To create a tighter spiritual bond between Rome and the provinces, Augustus encouraged the cult of Roma,
               the goddess and guardian of the state
               In the Hellenistic east, where worship of the king was common, the cult evolved into that of Roma et
               Augustus and spread rapidly--by the time of Augustus’ death in 14 AD, nearly every province had a shrine
               to the cult
               In the West, it was not the  person of the emperor who was worshipped, but his genius or guardian spirit
               In praying for the good health and welfare of the emperor, Romans and provincials were praying for the
               empire itself--the cult became a symbol of Roman unity
          Roman expansion into northern and western Europe
               One of the most important aspects of Augustus’ reign was the Roman expansion into the wilderness of
               northern and western Europe--Augustus was following in Julius Caesar’s footsteps here
                    Under Augustus, Rome completed its conquest of Spain, solidified its hold over Gaul, and
                    established a new frontier in Germany (the Roman armies pushed as far east as the Elbe River, but
                    Germanic tribes defeated a Roman army--killing 20,000 Roman soldiers--and the Romans withdrew
                    to the Rhine)
                    In the central part of Europe, Rome gained control over all or part of modern Austria, Bavaria,
                    Hungary, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania
               These areas were connected by a series of outstanding Roman roads, which linked together the military
               camps
               In many cases, towns sprang up around these camps and traders soon began to do business with both the
               Romans and native peoples of these areas
               Thus, Roman culture and ways spread throughout Europe
     The Julio-Claudians through the “Five Good Emperors”
          The Julio Claudians
               For 50 years following Augustus’ death in 14 AD, the Roman empire was ruled by members of either the
               Julian or Claudian clans, making this period known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty
               Some of these rulers, such as Tiberius and Claudius were capable rulers and administrators; other, such as
               Caligula and Nero were men who exercised their power stupidly and for personal gain
                    Claudius made one of the biggest advancements to the empire when he created an imperial
                    bureaucracy composed of professional administrators
                    This delegation of power helped the emperor rule the empire more easily and efficiently
               The Praetorian Guard
                    One of the creations of Augustus also played a major role during this period--the Praetorian Guard
                    The Praetorian Guard was designed to be the emperor’s bodyguard, but it frequently became a
                    maker of emperors as well as a guardian
                    In 41AD, a member of the guard murdered Caligula (to the sorrow of few) and the guard hailed
                    Claudius as emperor
                    Under threat from the guard, the Senate ratified this move
                    Over the next three centuries, this became a common tale as the Praetorian guard too often
                    murdered those they were supposed to protect and saluted emperors of their own choosing
          Year of the Four Emperors
               In 68 AD, Nero’s inept rule led to military rebellion and his death, opening the way to widespread
               disruption
               The following year, four men claimed the postion of emperor at the same time--leading their armies from
               Gaul, the Rhine, and the eastern parts of the empire back to Rome to claim themselves as emperor
          The Flavians
               In 70 AD, Vespasian, commander of the eastern armies, entered Rome and restored order to the city
               Vespasian, although not a brilliant leader, helped stabilize the empire after the disasters of Nero’s rule
                    He suppressed the numerous rebellions that had erupted toward the endo of Nero’s reign, most
                    notably the Jewish uprising in Judaea
                         In Judaea, longstanding atrocities and popular unrest by Romans and Jews alike sparked a
                         massive revolt in 66
                         Four years later, Vespasian sent a Roman army which reconquered Judea and captured the
                         city of Jerusalem--the temple and much of the city was destroyed during the siege
                         The Jewish survivors were enslaved and their nation destroyed, marking the end of one of the
                         worst failures in Roman imperial administration
                    To prevent another power struggle upon his death, Vespasian designated his two sons as his
                    successors, thus making the Flavian dynasty an open and admitted monarchy (instead of the
                    principate that Augustus created)
               Expansion of the Empire
                    The two sons, Titus and Domitian continued the expansion of the empire, particularly in northern and
                    western Europe
                    Claudius had expanded Rome’s power to Britain during his reign
                    Domitian added new territory in Germany and in central Europe along the Danube before he was
                    killed by an assassin in 96 AD
          The Age of the Five Good Emperors--The Antonines
               The era of the Antonine emperors--Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius--was
               one of almost unparalleled prosperity for the empire--even the serenity fof Augustus' day seemed to pale in
               comparison
                    British historian Edward Gibbon labelled this the era of the "Five Good Emperors"
                    They were among the most dedicated and ablest emperors in Roman history--they were also among
                    the most powerful as they increasingly became the source of power in the empire
               Hadrian as example
                    Hadrian became emperor in 117
                         He was born in Spain--showing the importance of the provinces in the empire--received his
                         education at Rome, and quickly caught the attention of his elder cousin Trajan who set him on
                         a military career
                         Hadrian started his career by serving in the army, serving along the frontiers of the empire
                         There he learned how the army lived and fought and saw for himself the problems of
                         defending the frontiers
                         When Trajan became emperor in 98, he appointed Hadrian to an important military position
                         where the young man learned how manage and defend the empire
                         At Trajan's death in 117, Hadrian became emperor
                    Bureaucracy
                         One of the most significant changes Hadrian made to the Roman empire was to reform the
                         imperial bureaucracy created by Claudius
                         The bureaucracy had grown enormously and Hadrian worked to make it an organized,
                         career-based system (rather than relying on relatives and friends)
                         The civil service no provided an alternative to military service as a way of advancing in Roman
                         society
                    Changes in the Army
                         The Roman army also changed a great deal during the period of the 5 good emperors
                         Before, it had been a mobile army of conquest.  But now it was becoming an army that had to
                         defend the frontiers against invaders--a garrison force
                         Italy could no longer supply all the recruits needed for the army, so increasingly only the
                         officers came from Italy and the more romanized provinces
                         The legionaries were mostly drawn from the less civilized provinces, especially the ones
                         closest to the frontiers
                         By Hadrian's time, fewer and fewer Roman soldiers were really Roman
                         By the 3d century, the barbarization of the army would result in one indifferetn to Rome and
                         its traditions
                         But at the time of Hadrian, it was still a stable fighting force and a way for men to learn a trade
                         and gain Roman citizenship
     Life in Imperial Rome
          Living conditions in the city
               Rome was truly an extraordinary city, boasting a population somewhere between 500,000-750,000 people
                    Among the stately palaces, noble public buildings, and beautiful residential areas were the jerrybuilt
                    apartments where most people lived
                    Fire and crime were perennial problems, even after Augustus created urban fire and police forces
                    Streets were narrow and drainage inadequate--still the Romans worked to keep the city clean,
                    enforcing regulatoins against dumping human refuse and garbage in the city streets and cemeteries
                    (much cleaner than Medieval (and even some modern) European cities)
               Feeding the urban populace
                    The areas surrounding Rome could not provide sufficient food to feed the city's population
                    The emperor thus provided the citizens of the city with free grain for bread and later oil and wine
                    This prevented riots caused by bread shortages and high prices
                    Even the non-citizens were aided, by providing grain at low prices
                    These measures prevented speculators from forcing up grain prices in times of crisis
                    By maintaing a steady grain supply the emperor kept the favor of the people and ensured that
                    Rome's poor and idle did not starve
          Entertainment
               Emperor also entertained the Roman populace, often at vast expense
               Two favorite types of amusements were gladiatorial competitions and chariot races
                    Gladiators
                         Gladiatorial fighting originated in an Etruscan funerary custom, a blood sacrifice for the dead
                         Hadrian staged extravagant contests--In 126 he sponsored 6 days of combats, during which
                         1,835 pairs of gladiators dueled
                         Who were gladiators
                              Criminals
                              Slaves
                              Prisoners of war
                              Free men who volunteered
                              Even some women fought in the pits
                         Although some Romans protested gladiatorial fighting, most delighted in it--not one of Rome's
                         more attractive sides
                         Not until the 5th century did Christianity put an end to it
                    Chariot races
                         Romans were even more addicted to chariot racing than gladiatorial shows
                         4 permanent teams competed on a regular basis (some claimed that a number of people cared
                         more about their favorite team than the empire)
                         Chariots ran a 7 lap course for about a total of 5 miles
                         One charioteer raced for 24 years, winning 1,462 of 4257 starts--being proclaimed by the
                         people the champion of all charioteers
          The Provences
               Roman settlements
                    The resulting peace and security under the 5 good emperors opened Britain, Gaul, Germany, and the
                    lands of the Danumbe to immigration
                    Agriculture flourished as large tracts of land came under cultivation at the hands of free tenant
                    farmers
                         Emperors provide loans on easy terms to farmers, enabling them to rent land previously
                         worked by the slaves
                         Also permitted them to cultivate the new lands that were being opened up
                         Small tenant farmer was becoming the backbone of Roman agriculture
                         Many of the immigrants were former Roman soldiers who settled in lands where they had
                         served
                         This further romanized these regions and brought much needed skills to the provinces
               Trade
                    Trade expanded in both the eastern and western portions of the empire as Roman military might
                    made it safer for people to travel
                    The roads built by the Roman army also made it much easier to travel by land than previously
                    Cities in the east, like Corinth and Antioch, became flourishing trade centers; Britain and Belgium
                    became prime grain producers; and Britain's famous wool industry probably got its start during this
                    period
                    The provinces quickly assumed a major role in the Roman economy, producing raw materials, food,
                    and finished goods that strongly competed with those made in Italy

 II.  Christianity

     The Coming of Christianity
          Unrest in Judea
               The entry of Rome into Jewish affairs was anything but peaceful
               The civil wars that destroyed the republic wasted the prosperity of Judaea and the rest of the eastern
               Mediterranean world
               Jewish leaders took sides in the fighting and Judaea suffered its share of ravages and military
               confiscations--and peace brought little help
          Herod
               The Romans made Herod king of Judaea during the reign of Augustus
               Herod brought prosperity and security to Judaea, but the Jews hated his acceptance of Greek culture and
               his bloodthirsty nature (he murdered his own wife and son)
               At his death in 4 B.C., the Jews broke out in revolt--waging war against Herod’s successor for nearly 10
               years
               Adding to the destruction of the civil war were a number of years of crop failures which caused widespread
               famine in Judaea
          During this time, a number of men calling themselves prophets proclaimed the end of the world and the coming of
          the Messiah, the savior of Israel
          Rome finally restored order in Judaea by putting the province under the control of a prefect (governor) who
          reported directly to the emperor
               Religious matters and local control was left largely under the authority of the Sanhedrin, the highest Jewish
               judicial authority
                    This system worked well at times, as some prefects tried concientuously to perform their duties--but
                    other prefects only wanted the position for the power and wealth they could gain
                    Often acting out of fear rather than cruelty, some prefects fiercely stamped out any signs of popular
                    discontent.
               Pontius Pilate, prefect from 26-36 AD, was typical of such incompetent officials--brutally supressing even
               innocent demonstrations
               The Roman tax collectors--called publicans by the people--were especially hated.  So much so that their
               name became synonymous with sin--”publicans and sinners”
               Clashes between Roman troops and Jewish guerrilas inflamed the anger on both sides
               The emperor Caligula undid part of Augustus’ successes in Judaea in 40 AD when he ordered that a statue
               of himself be erected in the temple at Jerusalem--although never carried out, it left most of the Jewish
               population outraged
          Among the Jews, two movements spread
               The Zealots
                    The Zealots were extermists who worked and fought to rid Judaea of the Romans
                    Resolute in their worship of Yahweh, they refused to pay any but the tax levied by the Jewish temple
                    Their battles with the Roman legionaries were marked by savagery on both sides--with many
                    innocents caught in the middle
                    As Roman policy grew tougher, even moderate Jews began to hate the conquerors
                    Judaea came more and more to resemble a tinderbox, ready to burst into a bonfire at the slightest
                    spark
               Militant apocalyptic sentiment
                    Although the belief of a coming Messiah was an old one among the Jews, bu the first century AD it
                    had become more widespread, fervent, militant, and apocalyptic than ever before
                    Typical of this type of sentiment was the Apocalypse of Baruch, which foretold the destruction of the
                    Roman Empire
                         First would come a period of tribulation, misery, and injustice
                         At the worst of the suffering, the Messiah would appear
                         The Messiah would destroy the Roman legions and all the kingdoms that had ruled Israel
                         Then the Messiah would inaugurate a period of happiness and plenty for the Jews
                    These ways of thinking were not abstract notions among the Jews
                         As the ravages of war continued and became more widespread, more and more people
                         prophecized the coming Messiah
                         One such person was John the Baptist--"the voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye
                         the way of the lord."
                         Other groups, such as the Essenes, readied themselves for the end of the world
                    Throughout the Mediterranean and the Roman Empire into which Christianity was born, numerous
                    religions flourished
                         Chief among these were three groups
                              1) The official state religion of Rome
                                   This form of religion was practiced on a grand scale by the official state
                                   priests--a world of  ritual and spectacle
                                   Still, it provided little emotional or spiritual comfort for the people
                                   The state cults formed a bond between the gods and people to ensure the
                                   continued well-being of Rome
                              2) The traditional gods and goddesses of the Roman home and countryside
                                   Often worshipped at their rustic shrines--small buildings or a sacred tree in an
                                   enclosure--these were the local deities
                                   Worship of these gods brought the Romans back in touch with nature and the
                                   elemental roots of rural life, but still left many wanting something more personal
                                   and immediate
                              3) The "mystery cults" that had sprung up throughout the Hellenistic east sought to
                              satisfy the emotional and religious needs of many
                                   These cults generally provided their adherents with an outlet for their emotions
                                   Cult of Bacchus was marked by wine drinking and often by drunken frenzy
                                   Cult of the Great Mother, Cybele, was celebrated with emotional and even
                                   overwrought procession--it offered its worshipers the promise of immortality
                                   These mystery cults could not satisfy all because by nature they were exclusive
                                   and barred people on basis or ethnicity, gender, class, or other grounds
     Life and Teachings of Jesus
          Teachings of Jesus
               Into this world of political severity, Zealoltry, religious yearning, and messianic hope came Jesus of
               Nazareth sometime around 5-3 BC
               His teachings followed the traditional Jewish law and  followed the orthodox tradition with one major
               exception--he taught in his own name, not that of Yahweh
               He dissapointed many of those who looked for a messiah who would deliver the Jews from Roman rule,
               preaching of a kingdom that was not of the earth--he told his followers to "render unto Caesar the things
               that are Caesar's."
               The ideals that emerge in the Gospel accounts stress the importance of love and the avoidance of anger or
               violence
               Discuss the Sermon on the Mount
          Jesus's teachings were based explicitly on the laws--he told his followers to follow its ethical content rather than
          merely observing its outward forms
     Reaction to Jesus
          After a brief time, various groups in Judaea became upset with his teachings --OPTIONAL:  particularly the
          Pharisees (who advocated strict observance of the Law), the Sadduccees (who combined Jewish traditions with
          those of the Greco-Roman world--a common practice during the Hellenistic period), and the Zealots who
          advocated violent revolution against the Romans)
          It was not Jesus' claim as king of the Jews that worried Pontius Pilate, but the agitation surrounding him--to avert
          riot and bloodshed, Pilate condemned Jesus to death
     Resurrection and birth of the Christian church
          The apostles' belief in the physical resurrection of Jesus was the foundation of a church to promote his teachings
          The message of the apostle Peter's first sermon was that Jesus had died and risen to be with Yahweh and that
          baptism makred the adherence of those who accepted his resurrection
          The first Christians were Jewish by birth and continued to follow the basic Jeiwsh law, but their belief in the divine
          as well as the human nature of Jesus inevitably aroused hostility and suspicion among their contemporaries
          Many began to leave Jerusalem and travel throughout Asia, preaching and and seeking converts (Thomas has
          been credited with spreading the message of Jesus as far as India)
     Paul and the expansion of Christianity
          Christianity might have remained a purely Jewish sect had it not been for Paul of Tarsus (5?-67?AD)
          The conversion of Hellenized Jews and of Gentiles (non-Jews) caused the sect grave problems.  Were the
          Gentiles subject to the law of Moses?  If not, was Christianity to have two sets of laws?  Paul's contribution was
          to answer these questions
          Born in a thriving city filled with Romans, Greeks, Jews, Syrians, and others, Paul was at home in the world of
          Greco-Roman culture
               After his conversion to Christianity, he taught that Jesus by his death and resurrection had fulfilled the
               prophecy of Judaism and initiated a new age
               Paul taught that Jesus was the son of God, the giver of a new law, and preached that Jesus' teachings were
               to be made open to all, whether Jew or Gentile
               Paul thus made a significant break with Judaism, Christianity's parent religion, for Judaism generally did not
               seek converts
          Paul's influence was far greater than that of any other early Christian--he travelled the lenght and breadth of the
          eastern Roman world, spreading his doctrine and preaching of Jesus to small groups in cities as far apart as
          Corinth and Rome
          Paul's vision of Christianity won out over Peter's traditionalism, as Christianity broke with Judaism and embarked
          on its own course
     Christianity in the Roman Empire
          Appeal of Christianity to the Romans
               Willingness to embrace both men and women, slaves and nobles made Christianity popular to many
                    Other religions were more exclusive
                         Mithraism similar to Christianity in some ways--fight between good and evil, a form of
                         baptism, a code of moral conduct, and promise of life after death
                         Mithraism allowed only men to be devotees
               Sense of belonging--communal celebrations such as the Lord’s Supper gave its adherents a sense of
               belonging to a group
               The promise of salvation--Jesus’ death on the cross had defeated evil and would reward followers with
               eternal life after death
               Forgiving nature of the religion--all people sin, but Jesus forgave those who repent
               Gave many in the Roman world a cause--a striving for a goal--in a world where many had become cynical
               and indifferent to others.  Each individual now had a duty to spread the gospel to others
          Persecution of Christians
               Although traditioally, early Christians were actively persecuted by Roman officials until the time of
               Constantine, the government never engaged in long-term systematic efforts to destroy the Christian religion
               There were some times of persecution, particularly in 64 AD when Nero blamed the great fire in Rome on
               the Christians and later under Diocletian, most of the time the Roman state basically ignored them
               Some Romans saw Christians as atheists and as cannibals (the rite of the Lord’s Supper where Christians
               eat the body and drink the blood of Christ)
          By the time of Constantine, most pagans and Christians alike were probably relieved when the emperor made
          Christianity official legal

III.  The Fall of the western Roman Empire

     Civil Wars and Barbarians
          Civil wars began to break out again following the death of Marcu Aurelius and the misrule of the empire by his son
          Commodus (emperor in the film Gladiator--actually died many years after his death in the movie (but did fight in
          the Colliseum))
          In 193, Septimus Severus defeated the other rivals and established a new dynasty (Severan) that lasted for 40
          years.
          Severus stabilized the empire, but his succesors could not keep control
               In the 49 years between 235-284, over 20 different emperors ascended to the throne, all but one died
               violently
               Many rebels died in the attempt to seize the throne
               During this fighting, claimants to the throne brought with them their armies to enforce their claim
               Since these armies were supposed to be guarding the borders, the frontiers were left open to invasion
               These babarians were probably being driven westward by invading tribes moving westward from Asia
               At one point, they even invade into northern Italy around Milan before being driven back
          These invasions left the average farmers and merchants  under a great deal of stress, often facing more danger
          from Roman soldiers than from invaders
     Diocletian and Constantine
          In 284, the emperor Diocletian (ruled 284-305) put an end to the turmoil
          He and his successor Constantine (306-337)worked to bring stability, but the price was high
          Acceptance of Christianity
     Creation of Constantinople
          Constantine erects the new city of Constantinople on the site of ancient Byzantium on the Bospherous
          The city will become the capital of the Roman empire--and will last as the capital of the Byzantine empire
     Was there a fall?