I.  Byzantium

• The Roman Empire in the East
• As the western empire was being divided into many small kingdoms, the eastern half of Rome emerged into an empire that became the last remnant of the imperial tradition
• The east was more populous, more heavily urbanized, and more prosperous
• The Hellenistic culture from the Greeks made the east more lively intellectually than the west
• Unlike the west, the east lost almost no territory to the Germanic speaking peoples
• During the middle of the 4th century, Constantius II, son of Constantine, set about making Constantinople a truly imperial city
• created a senate and a new set of local urban magistrates
• placed Constantinople on an equal footing with Rome
• Theodosius II (ruled from 408-50)
• Under the reign of Theodosius II, the empire in the east grew in power, he and his wife turned Constantinople into a powerful city, and his empire remained relatively free of German incursions
• The most important contribution of Theodosius was his compilation of all the Roman laws issued since the time of Constantine and arrangement of them in a systematic fashion
• These laws were issued just before the establishment of the Germanic kingdoms in the West, and thus provided the Germans with a rule of law and regulations for the conduct of daily affairs
• Emperor Justinian (527-565)
• upon becoming emperor in 527, Justinian worked tirelessly in many areas (earning the nickname of the emperor that never sleeps)--he was the last great emperor of the Roman empire (although only in the east by this time)
• Theodora, his wife, played an important role as consultant and as someone with her own agenda (pushing particularly to give women more property rights and protecting poor women)
• Justinian Code
• Recodified the work on the law begun by Theodosius the previous century
• Three parts:  The Code (organized collection of all imperial laws), the Digest (a collection of the writings of classical Roman jurists), and the Institutes (a textbook for law students)
• This collection became the most influential set of laws ever published in the western world--it still forms the core of most legal systems in the West
• Justinian also launched a partially successful attempt to regain the western Roman empire from the Germans
• Creation of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
• largest, most elaborate church in the Christian world (even today)
• when it was completed, Justinian is said to have stated, "Solomon, I have outdone you."
• Justinian tried as hard as he could to rebuild the Roman empire, but was only partially successful
• The rise of the Byzantine Empire
• The half-century after Justinians death in 565 was marked with great difficulties for eastern Roman empire
• it was plagued by external enemies and civil wars within
• but by 610 it had begun the road to recovery and the transformation from Roman to Byzantine empire
• From Roman to Byzantine
• in 610 Heraclius became emperor and ruled until 641
• during his reign, the eastern, Greek nature of the empire was emphasized over ties to the west
• Military entanglements in the western empire were abandoned to give greater security to the east
• Institutional reforms were initiated to meet the new cultural, diplomatic, and political realities of the world

• Islam and the Arabs
• By 750, Islam had spread from its homeland in Arabia into Persia, through the Middle East and North Africa, and onto the Iberian Peninsula
• Islam began in the city of Mecca, which was strategically located at the crossroads of the caravan routes from Palestine and Syria to Yemen, and from Mesopotamia to Ethiopia in eastern Africa
• Although Mecca had little manufacturing or agriculture to provide an economic base, it was a pilgrimage center where visitors came to worship assorted deities--the main sanctuary housed idols representing some 360 gods.  Because pilgrims contributed to the local economy, commerce and religion were closely entwined
• Muhammad and Islam
• Muhammad
• Early life
• born about 570 and orphaned at a young age
• brought up in the world of commerce
• married the wealthy widow Khadija when he was about 25
• devout disciple of traditional Arabic religion
• sometime in 610, went into a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca where the Archangel Gabriel proclaimed him as the prophet of God
• Beginnings of Islam
• It took Muhammad several years to become confident in his calling as the prophet
• most early followers of Islam were sympathetic to the ideals of family solidarity, honor, and generosity--compared favorably with the profit-oriented views of wealthy merchants
• Five Pillars of Islam
• The Shahada (One God)
• Only one God, no trinity
• Christ was another prophet
• Allah very similar to concepts of Jahweh and Jehovah
• Muhammad saw himself as the fourth and last of the great prophets--Moses, David, Jesus, and himself
• Salat (Prayer)--five times today -- towards Mecca
• Zakat (Tithing)--tax that all Muslims must pay -- loan to God that will be repaid
• Sawm (Fasting)--month of Ramadan, no food, drink, medicine, or sensual pleasure during daylight hours
• Hajj (Pilgrimage)--to Mecca--at least once during life
• ** Notice that jihad is not one of the pillars (as some claim)
• The Qur'an (Koran)
• final version established by Muhammad’s companions some time around 650
• contains the word of God as revealed to Muhammad
• emphasis on Muslims to memorize the Koran--imparts a special sense of divine presence
• the work contains social as well as religious maxims--including instructions about inheritance, dowries, and marriage.
• men are generally seen as superior to women, slavery permitted, but with restrictions
• Other holy words found in the Hadith, which is based on recollections of Muhammad’s words and actions
• The Hejira
• In 622, Muhammad moved to Medina, about 200 miles north of Mecca, because of oposition to his teachings in Mecca
• this migration became known as the Hejira (and became the first year of the Islamic calender)
• He remained in Medina until 630, attacking Meccan caravans and gaining followers
• That year, he had gained sufficient strength to return to his home in triumph
• Sunnis, Shi'ites, and Sufis
• Muhammad's Successors
• When Muhammad died in 632, his followers chose his closest friend, Abu Bakr, to succeeed him as the new leader--became the Imam or Caliph (deputy of the prophet)
• Abu Bakr then became the spirtual leader, commander of the army, head of the Arab state, and supreme judge for the Muslims
• During his two-year reign, Abu Bakr imposed a unity on most Arab peoples
• Over the next two decades, Bakr and his successors continued the militant policy of early Islam, sending armies northward into Palestine and Syria, westward across North Africa, and into Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent
• Assassination of leaders--some by outsiders, some by insiders
• Shi'ites
• Split in ranks of Muslims came with assassination of Uthman in 656
• Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and cousin came into power
• He proclaimed that Muhammad had designated him as successor
• He could not unite the various factions, and was himself assassinated in 661
• Ali’s followers called themselves the Shi’ah and continued to rebel against other groups
• Ali’s son, Husayn, led another rebellion, but was also killed--became a martyr (passion plays reenact his death each year)
• Core of Shiite belief is that Ali was true successor of Muhammad and thus the first imam (or caliph)
• believed that if Muhammad was the prophet, Ali was his comrade
• Shiites accept only laws and beliefs found in Koran or set forth by a true imam who was the beneficiary of divine revelation
• Also believe that pilgrimage to Mecca can be done by proxy or can substitute a visit to a Shiite saint (such as Ali)
• Believe that the 12 true imams (the first 12) will return one day as saviors
• Sunnis
• Sunnis follow the tradition set forth by Muhammad and in the Koran--regard the latter as complete and do not attribute any special religious knowledge to their leaders
• For centuries, the Sunni were seen as the mainstream of Islamic thought
• Sufis
• The mystics of islam
• ultimate goal  a union with god through love and the purification of goal
• In 10th century, Sufi began organizing brotherhoods similar to Christian monasticics
• The Umayyads (661-750)
• after the death of Ali, the caliphate passed into the hands of the Umayyad family
• the Umayyads built many of the centralizing institutions that characterized the caliphate until the 10th century
• set up a unified coinage
• granted all key positions in government to Arabs
• maintained a tight control over provincial governors and taxes
• They also moved their capital to Damascus (more centrally located)
• The Umayyads ruled over the vast expansion of Islam from the Indus in the east, through North Africa, into Spain (and part of Gaul) in the west
• The Abbasids
• The Umayyads created significant enemies with their
• Islamic Civilization
• Islamic Society and Economy
• Muslims built some of the greatest cities in the Medieval world
• Baghdad, which was four times larger in area than Constantiople, had over one million people while the Byzantine capital had only 400,000
• In western Europe, the most magnificent city was Cordoba with a population of 400,000
• it had one mosque that seated 5500 worshipers
• It had 900 baths, 1600 mosques (Rome had 200 churches), 60,000 mansions, and around 100,000 shops
• The libraries at Cordoba held thousands of books (the largest libraries in the western Christian monasteries numbered no more than 300 in their collections)
• Muslim economy was based on trade and agriculture
• Vast trading networks spread throughout the Islamic empires carrying goods from the Mediterranean all the way to Asia
• In agriculture, the Muslims continued to grow the traditional crops already there
• Still, they made improvements in agriculture, introducing the curved plow blade (from China) and contour plowing on hills
• Religious toleration
• Islam was a rather tolerant religion in some respects
• Christians and Jews (as "Peoples of the Book"--bible) were allowed to freely practice their religions
• They had to pay taxes and accept Muslim law
• Heathens however, were forcibly converted to Islam
• Culture and Learning
• Muslim Women
• Women were rigorously excluded from public life in the Muslim world
• the Qu'ran permitted men to have up to four wives, so long as he could support them financially and treat them fairly
• Still, Muslim women remained control of their doweries, which meant that still had some security in the case of multiple marriages
• Muslim Synthesis in Medicine, Science, and Philosophy
• Contributions to the West

• Defining the Middle Ages (500AD-1500AD)
• breakdown of Roman power in the West
• strengthening of Christianity in Europe
• a new form of society based on Roman models, Christianity, and Germanic society
• Germanic society
• Fierce Warriors, but not well-organized
• therefore Rome had been able to buy off some of them as mercenaries, allies
• therefore could not overtake Rome right away
• general unity (all were Germans) plus political independence would be the model for European history for many years
• Social Classes
• Top was nobility
• large landholders
• usually hereditary (but some possibility of change)
• picked a king and a military chief (for each battle campaign) from this group (still by combat at times)
• Freemen
• owned their own land
• did not have to work for anyone else
• non-free, non-slaves
• held to the land
• had to work some allotted time to large landowner
• land could be sold with the people on it
• but people could not be sold without the land
• would therefore be a new kind of group in the west - the serf
• Social life
• women held in higher esteem in Germanic society than in Rome, Middle East
• great eaters, drinkers, gamblers
• gained clout via war
• warriors made up of freemen, nobility
• honorable to wear a sword
• outstanding warriors would have a retinue of younger followers
• young followers would be devoted to their leader
• Kernels of the medieval society found in Germanic society
• see this sort of organization as less structured, less organized, more personal, less bureaucratic than Rome or Egypt
• also therefore did not, to that point, create great cities or towns
• Christianity and Europe
• Previously Christianity was spread within the Roman Empire
• Constantine and the acceptance of Christianity
• opportunity for Christianity to use the interconnections of the empire for its growth
• Organization of the Church provided means for expanding the Church
• People - Priest - Bishop
• people as believers
• priests as servers
• bishops as teachers and shepherds (as many as the Church needed)
• Bishops had one man, one vote tradition in theological matters since Nicea in 325
• Administrative and organizational primacy (not supremacy) given to Patriarchs
• Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Rome
• Roman pope was first among equals (Petrine Doctrine)
• Rome was the place of appeal - will become leader of all Western Christianity
• Monastic tradition
• as opposed to urban tradition in early Christianity
• the appeal of the Desert Fathers - often very charismatic
• the appeal of devoting your life to Christianity
• develop primarily in Egypt
• originally hermits - gather followers, beginnings of monastic tradition
• gathering groups together as communities
• provided possible "missionaries" ("We're on a mission from God...")
• had no families to worry about
• had no ties of business, etc., other than the Church
• devoted to God and His work - devoted to obedience
• used to living in difficult circumstances
• able to travel to far-off places
• Monasteries crucial to survival of learning and knowledge
• As Roman empire collapses, become repositories for knowledge
• Many monasteries collect and copy books; one of few sources of literacy in early period
• Irish monasteries played a key role in keeping and copying manuscripts (How the Irish Saved Civilization, Thomas Cahill)
• St. Patrick (d. 461) important in this tradition
• Roman-British - kidnapped to Ireland, escapes
• returns as missionary
• Irish take not only to Christianity, but to books
• Irish begin collecting books and founding monasteries across Europe at precisely the moment the Empire is collapsing
• Importance of Christianity to organization of Europe in medieval period
• unifying "glue" for Europeans
• linked them to a rich moral and spiritual background in Hebrew, Greek civilization
• Other key factors in development of early Medieval Europe
• Importance of Rome as background to European politics, society
• political centralization (gone, but still remembered)
• possibility of travel, idea of an empire
• Importance of Germanic tribes and their successors
• provided social structure that would become Feudalism
• provided personnel
• Importance of Geography, Climate, Population
• geography didn't change - lots of small mountains but few large ones
• rocky, difficult soil for tillage
• general warming trend in Europe throughout the period
• population on the rise - 100% increase from 1000-1300 from 37-74 million
• Charlamagne--Charles the Great (Carolus in Latin--thus Carolingian) ruled 772-806 -- A Frankish Emperor
• Inherited a (somewhat) unified kingdom from his father Pepin the Short in 768
• had taken over, enlarged kingdom from Merovingian rulers (first Frankish dynasty)
• had created good relations with Rome
• First significant unified government in Europe since fall of Roman Empire
• Ruled with his brother Carloman until Carloman's death in 761
• Created an illustrious career as warrior, politician, patron of religion
• Unified (sort of) central Europe from France eastward and southward, under his conntol
• a highly charismatic leader
• a capable warrior (got other leaders to do most of his fighting for him)
• very decentralized empire based on personal relationships rather than on power or bureaucracy
• would be hard to maintain - depended on personal relationship between king and vassals
• gained increasing strength in Rome, seen as a defender of Christianity
• Therefore, in 800, crowned Holy Roman Emperor (Neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an empire)
• a difficult term - Charles didn't even use it some of the time
• shortly after Charles was crowned, there was a new Byzantine emperor
• the Byzantine emperor therefore called Charles the "Emperor of the Franks"
• continued to rule in the manner of Frankish kings rather than as Roman emperor
• yet probably liked the idea as a unifying title for all of European dominions
• importance of the idea of the Holy Roman Emperor
• link to Rome
• link to its imperial glory
• linked together these various little geographic regions
• would last until 1685 in reality, in theory longer
• Carolingian Renaissance
• what does the term "renaissance" mean?
• Charlemagne tried to reform the Church, whose organization had become riddled with problems
• tried to institute new control over who became bishop, giving control of that position to the king
• instituted clerical schools and created centers of learning - would become very important for Europe that church and education were put together
• backed the creation (reform) of the vulgate Latin Bible, still used and basis for other Bibles
• instituted the idea of liberal arts to European learning (via monk Alcuin, ca. 735-804)
• Development of Carolingian miniscule - made writing easier
• The Carolingian empire started to fall apart Charlemagne died and his kingdom was divided among his three grandsons
• A Frankish, not Roman, custom
• without charismatic leadership of Charles things did not fare well; less and less centralized organization
• beginning of modern European states here
• Northmen invaded from North
• English invaded by Norse
• Franks developed more and more as French
• Germans retained power in central Europe
• How was the Carolingian - and later Feudal - Politics and society organized?
• defining Feudalism
• scholars tell us that it meant a slew of different things because it was so diverse
• term was not used by the people themselves - one that we use
• three main aspects of feudalism
• Vassalage--relationship of lord to vassal - land in exchange for military service
• fragmentation of public power - vassals have rule of law on their fiefs
• devolution of public authority into private hands
• The social bonds of Feudalism - based on Germanic ideas
• relationship of lord to vassal
• military basis of this relationship
• as it grew into a land relationship too, since vassal had to be able to feed himself and buy the armor and horses -- needed for new cavalry called "knights"
• land broken down further and further, kings to lords to vassals of various kinds
• all based on honor and equality
• importance of a personal bond between people, made by themselves
• Breakup of large center of power (Rome, then Carolingian) into ever smaller units
• therefore power went from one place to many smaller ones
• fragmentation meant less unity but greater possibility of personal relationship
• Thus public control, authority became private, in the hands of the king
• king himself had little power over his vassals except as military leader and personal loyalty
• geography of Europe made this devolution easy
• local vassals therefore became all-powerful in their local sphere
• vassals then controlled, protected local populace from the manor house (castle)
• Economic system--Manorial system
• devolution of real empire meant increasing importance of farming versus trade
• by High Middle Ages more land under tillage in Europe than any other time in its history
• Manor system described
• peasants worked land owned by manor (given for military service by the king or bigger lord)
• much (or most) land owned by local lord
• peasants had to pay taxes in kind and time to lord for use of his land and their own defense
• peasants often were serfs -- they could not move off land
• some peasants and artisans free and able to move about Europe
• creation of the three field system instead of the two field system
• introduction of the iron plow
• different from the wooden plow used in the south
• harder, more efficient, but much more expensive and difficult to maintain
• introduction of oxen, then horses for plowing
• need for communal plowing with communal hitch and plow
• introduction of many local blacksmiths and their products across Europe
• new agricultural system helped to fuel the population explosion, cultural explosion of the middle ages