I.  The French Revolution

• Prelude
• Louis XVI
• His ancestors
• Recall that the French King Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) had epitomized the ideal of an absolute monarch.
• When Louis died in 1715, France was at the height of its power
• However, deep financial troubles were about to surface because of Louis' desire for an empire
• Louis XIV's successor, Louis XV (r. 1715-1774) tried, but failed to reform the French system for raising revenues
• During his reign, France went into debt fighting numerous foreign wars, and lost nearly all of its American possessions to the English after the Seven Years War (1756-1763).
• Louis XVI's money problems
• Louis XVI (r. 1774-1792) sought to re-establish the French presence in North America by intervening on the side of the Americans in the American Revolution from 1778 to 1781
• But this pushed the French government even deeper into debt.
• Louis' finance minister, Jacques Necker, was less reform-minded than his predecessors, and argued that the main problem was that the treasury was being depleted by royal pensioners
• However, Necker's successor, Charles Alexandre Calonne, tried to resolve the financial difficulties with two reforms
• First, Calonne proposes to transform peasant services (the corvee) into simple cash payments
• Throughout the Middle Ages, peasants were obligated to perform labor for the crown a certain  number of days per year -- for example, building roads
• Calonne proposed to end this practice and replace it with simple taxation.
• Second, Calonne proposed to introduce new land taxes to be imposed on all landowners regardless of their social status
• This second proposal threatened to end a coveted aristocratic privilege, so Calonne had to seek the support of the aristocracy and the clergy for his plan.
• In 1787, Calonne convened the 150-member Assembly of Notables to ratify his new tax plan, but the Notables refused to agree
• Instead, they demanded a greater role in government and the reappointment of Calonne's predecessor, Jacques Necker
• The Notables also insisted on auditing the monarchy's financial records and denounced the lavish court spending (ex. Marie-Antoinette's "natural" garden)
• More importantly, the Assembly of Notables argued that they were not vested with authority to consent to new taxes
• This, they said, was a right enjoyed only by the medieval institution known as the Estates General.
• Louis XVI is forced to back down
• He replaces Calonne with the Archbishop of Paris (one of the Notables), and convenes the Parlement of Paris to ratify his tax plan
• But the Parlement also insisted that new taxes could be ratified only by the Estates General
• As the financial and political crisis deepened, it was becoming clear to the aristocracy and wealthy commercial class that they had the king in something of a bind
• Local aristocratic parlements began calling for a restoration of the privileges they had enjoyed before Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV
• In 1788, Louis XVI finally agrees to convene the Estates General, and to reappoint Necker as his finance minister
• This concession represents the end of absolute monarchy in France, but what would take its place was still anyone's guess.
• The Estates General
• The three estates of the Estates General
• The First Estate was the clergy
• Although they were a small group (numbering about 100,000), they owned 10% of all the land in France
• They did not pay regular taxes, although they were expected to make a "voluntary gift" to the Crown every three years
• The Second Estate was the nobility
• They numbered  about 400,000, but owned 25% of the land
• They were very lightly taxed, and enjoyed age-old legal privileges
• The Third Estate included everyone else--about some 25 million commoners
• The Third Estate was comprised chiefly of peasants and the urban poor, but there were a growing number of prosperous, educated members of the middle class (the bourgeoisie)
• This bourgeoisie would become the leaders of the Third Estate and drive much of the French Revolution.
• What will the Estates General do?
• Louis' decision to convene the Estates General caused extraordinary excitement, but it also raised thorny questions about power, class and privilege
• How would the Estates General operate?
• Would voting be by head (i.e., everyone had one vote, in which case the representatives of the larger Third Estate would have real power) or by chamber (i.e., each chamber had one vote, in which case the smaller First and Second Estates could veto the Third)?
• The Estates General threatened to sharpen the lines of separation between the orders and worsen class conflict
• Moreover, the calling of the Estates General had the effect of raising political consciousness and heightening expectations for change among ordinary people
• All citizens were invited to meet in their local parishes to choose electors (who would then choose the representatives) and to draft grievance petitions (called "cahiers") that set out their views
• There was a proliferation of pamphlets, setting out different political agendas, with some openly attacking the privileges of the Second Estate (the nobility)
• The Estates General meet
• The Estates General finally meets on May 15, 1789, but Louis XVI and Necker had left all of the thorny questions about voting unresolved
• Negotiations among the three estates broke down
• On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate proclaims its intent to form a separate "National Assembly."
• About a third of the clergy joins the commoners, and Louis XVI orders the rebellious delegates to be locked out of the meeting hall
• Deputies of the Third Estate them move to an indoor tennis court, where they take an oath not to separate until they have won a French constitution
• This Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789) signaled an important shift in French politics and society, and an assault on the feudal privileges of the Old Regime.
• Louis responds
• Concerned about the turn of events, Louis XVI addresses all three estates on June 23, 1789
• He promises the delegates:
• equality in taxation
• civil liberties
• regular meetings of the Estates General
• But he also insists that "the ancient distinction of the three orders be conserved in its entirety," and that voting in the Estates General be by estate rather than by head
• Some are appeased by the king's remarks, but most are not
• Louis is then forced to recognize the National Assembly -- at least for the time being
• Unbeknownst to the Third Estate, the king has secretly ordered 20,000 troops to come to Paris to crush the rebellious delegates
• The French Revolution was about to turn violent
• The conflict begins
• Rumors of an impending confrontation with royal troops began to spread in the streets of Paris
• City dwellers in France had already been hard hit by crop failures in the winter of 1788/89; the price of bread had nearly doubled by the summer of 1789
• On July 11, 1789, Louis XVI dismissed Jacques Necker, the popular finance minister, suggesting to some that he was about to go on the offensive
• It is in this atmosphere of crisis and discontent that Parisians will finally storm the Bastille (July 14), in search of weapons with which to defend themselves against attack
• July 14, 1789 (Bastille Day) is therefore generally viewed as the start of the French Revolution, although as the previous discussion indicates, the events leading up to the storming of the Bastille had clearly started earlier
• Similar clashes would take place elsewhere in France, and faced with popular rebellion Louis XVI is forced to embrace the white, blue and red (tricolor) of the New Regime, allowing the National Assembly to proceed
• The "Great Fear" and the "Decleration of the Rights of Man and Citizen"
• A period known as the Great Fear would follow; peasant revolts throughout the countryside would force nobles and clergy alike to renounce their age-old feudal privileges
• On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly promised the end of feudalism and decreed "civic equality."
• Three weeks later, the Assembly issued the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which proclaimed that all men "were born and remain free and equal in rights."
• Although women had played a vital role in the revolution to that point, the Declaration did not extend the rights and protections of citizenship to them.
• The National Assembly
• Having set out its basic principles, the Assembly then began the harder task of writing a constitution, effectively restructuring French government and society
• The old provincial boundaries were redrawn, and the country was divided into more or less equal "departments."
• In 1790, the Assembly abolished noble titles and all remaining legal distinctions between aristocrat and commoner
• Any adult male who satisfied minimum taxpaying requirements was given the right to vote
• Assault on the Church
• The Assembly also nationalized Church property, placing it at the "disposition of the nation."
• With confiscated Church lands, the government issued bonds (assignats) that were circulated as money.
• The anti-Christian views of Enlightenment philosophes such as Voltaire (1694-1778) were now being given effect; in July 1790 the Assembly issued the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which transformed France's Roman Catholic Church into a branch of the state
• The number of bishops was reduced, and all clergy became paid employees of the government, selected by the people
• Louis' response to the attack on the church
• Louis XVI reluctantly signed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, but he believed that the Assembly had gone to far in implementing its radical agenda
• Understanding that potential opposition to the measure among French Catholics, Louis XVI hoped that the Civil Constitution might be a basis for launching a popular counter revolution
• Louis, Marie-Antoinette, and the French nobility
• Thinking such a counter revolution could be better orchestrated from abroad, Louis and his wife Marie Antoinette tried to slip out of Paris in June, 1791
• But the king and queen are caught and returned to the capital (and are basically placed under house arrest)
• However, at this time the Assembly was not quite prepared to do away with the monarchy altogether, so they concoct a story that allows Louis to save face and remain king, although his days would be numbered.
• Meanwhile, many French aristocrats had fled the country, most often settling in the powerful German state of Prussia
• These "emigres" wanted to restore the absolute monarchy and their feudal privileges
• The Prussians, Austrians, Russians and English were all concerned about the turn of events in France, fearful that similar radical movements might develop in their countries
• Foreign Intervention and the end of Louis
• In April, 1792, Prussia and France went to war
• Louis and Marie Antoinette were secretly hoping for a Prussian victory, and the radicals in the National Assembly (known as the Jacobins) began to openly question the loyalty of the king and queen
• The Prussian commander, the Duke of Brunswick, threatened to level the city of Paris of harm came to the royal family
• This threat was viewed by the Jacobins as proof positive that the king and queen were in league with France's enemy, and on August 10, 1792 the two were forced to abdicate and placed under arrest.
• The king's removal and arrest generated a heated debate, and a National Convention was called to determine the fate of the king and the future of the monarchy in France
• Jacobins and urban militants known as sans-culottes, and radical journalists like Jean-Paul Marat, called for more violent and severe measures against counter-revolution
• The National Convention ultimately voted to behead the king and queen (by a vote of 387 to 334) and the two were guillotined on January 21, 1793.
• The Terror and the Thermidorian Reaction
• As the Jacobins came to dominate the National Convention, they purged more moderate factions, executing those who did not fully embrace their program of radically reconstructing French society
• A 12-man Committee of Public Safety was entrusted with running the government, and Maximilien Robespierre emerged as the Committee's leading personality
• Elections, local self-government, and guarantees of individual liberty were all set aside, until the French Republic had defeated "all of its enemies."
• The Law of the Maximum imposed general price controls and empowered local revolutionary committees to imprison citizens whose loyalty was suspect
• The Law of Suspects led to the imprisonment of 300,000 ordinary citizens for their opinions or social status
• Refractory priests (who resisted state control of the Church) were banned from France upon pain of death
• Fortunately, this period of extreme repression, known as the Reign of Terror, was short lived
• The radical journalist, Jean-Paul Marat, was murdered in 1793
• After a series of bloody purges in the Spring of 1794, Robespierre himself was arrested, tried and executed (July, 1794), and moderate factions regained control of the National Convention
• Cultural Revolution
• The removal of Robespierre and the resurgence of the moderates is known as the Thermidorian Reaction
• Thermidor was one of the months of the Revolutionary Calendar, which replaced those names derived from classical or Christian concepts and renumbered the years to recognize revolutionary events
• This was part of the cultural revolution that engulfed France after 1789, whose sweeping nature ultimately led to the bloodshed of the Terror
• This cultural revolution was premised upon Enlightenment principles of rationality, which we discussed previously
• Another example: the metric system of weights and measures, which was defined by the French Academy of Sciences in 1791, replaced weights and measures that had their origins in the Middle Ages
• Also, the abolition of slavery within France in 1791, and throughout French colonies abroad in 1794
• With regard to family relations, the Convention had legalized divorce and enacted shared inheritance laws (even for illegitimate offspring), in an attempt to eradicate inequalities
• The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon
• After Robespierre's execution, his more moderate opponents took over the National Convention
• In August 1795, a new constitution was promulgated that created a 5-man executive committee, known as the Directory
• The Directory presided over an assembly to be elected by limited suffrage (voting), but moderates found it difficult to mediate between die-hard royalists (who wanted a restoration of the monarchy) and radical Jacobins (who wanted egalitarian reforms to continue unabated)
• Out of the instability and uncertainty of the Directory years (1794-99), rose Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself in French military campaigns in northern Italy against the Austrians.

(The fight for Hougoumont Chateau, Battle of Waterloo)

II.  The Empire of Napoleon

• Rise of Napoleon
• Out of the instability and uncertainty of the Directory years (1794-99) rose Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself in French military campaigns against the Austrians in northern Italy
• Although a minor nobleman from Corsica, Napoleon had embraced some of the ideals of the French Revolution
• Military Career
• In 1796-97, he conquered most of northern Italy for France, and had developed a taste for governing
• In northern Italy, he moved to suppress religious orders, end serfdom, and limit age-old noble privilege
• Like Julius Caesar, Napoleon next turned his attention to the conquest of Egypt (1798), but a British navy under Admiral Horatio Nelson destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile
• Abandoning his troops in Egypt, Napoleon returned to France and received a hero's welcome (despite having little to show for his efforts)
• With the government in disarray, Napoleon launched a successful coup d'etat on November 9, 1799
• Napoleon becomes Emperor
• He proclaimed himself "First Consul" (Caesar's title) and did away with the elected Assembly (appointing a Senate instead)
• In 1802, he made himself sole "Consul for Life," and two years later proclaimed himself "Emperor"--sounds almost like the moves that Augustus made in becoming Caesar
• Each such increase in power was ratified by a vote of the people, known as a plebiscite, a favorite tool of modern dictators including the 20th century's Adolf Hitler
• Thus Napoleon had established the same sort of royal centralization (really a dictatorship) that public opinion had so roundly condemned at the start of the French Revolution in 1789
• His government permitted no organized opposition
• The number of newspapers was reduced, and remaining newspapers were heavily censored
• A secret police perfected suppression and surveillance techniques to silence liberal intellectuals and former political activists\
• Napoleon and the Catholic Church
• Through an 1801 Concordat with the Vatican, Napoleon sought to heal the divisions with the Catholic Church that had developed after the confiscation of church property and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
• But Napoleon's clear intent was to use the clergy to prop up his regime
• The pulpit and the primary school both became instruments of social control "to bind the religious conscience of the people to the august person of the emperor"
• Eventually, Pope Pius VII renounced the Concordat, and Napoleon had him brought to France and placed under house arrest
• The Napoleonic Code
• To Napoleon, civil equality and the abolition of the remaining vestiges of feudalism were more important than popular control, freedom, or democracy
• Thus a Napoleonic Code (legal system) would be his most lasting legacy
• Wherever it was implemented (in France and conquered territories) the Code swept away feudal property relations
• It established the right to choose one's occupation, to receive equal treatment under the law, and to enjoy religious freedom
• But the Code also allowed employers to dominate their workers by prohibiting strikes and trade unions
• Napoleon also reversed some of the Revolutionary legislation that had established civil rights for women and children
• The Napoleonic Code curtailed the right of divorce, and deprived wives of the property rights established by the National Assembly and National Convention during the 1790's
• "A wife owes obedience to her husband," declared Napoleon
• Napoleon as Commander-in-Chief
• By 1808, every major European power except Great Britain had been defeated by the French on the battlefield
• Napoleon's control extended over most of western and central Europe
• The most important element in Napoleon's military success was conscription (drafting) and France's large population
• In 1793, the National Convention had passed a law drafting (levee en masse) all able-bodied unmarried men between 18 and 25
• But this was meant to be a one-time-only emergency measure against the Prussians, who had gone to war with France in 1792
• Napoleon made the conscription permanent, did away with the marriage exemption, and created an elaborate system in which local governments were responsible for supplying a yearly quota of French troops
• By 1810, that quota had risen to 120,000 (remember, France's population on the eve of the Revolution was about 25 million)
• The Continental System
• After defeating his enemies on the continent of Europe, Napoleon sought to gain economic control of Europe
• He established the "Continental System" by which the French basically controlled all foreign trade on the continent
• In addition to increasing the wealth of France, this system also sought to basically starve his only remaining enemy, Great Britain, into submission
• Although it had some success, the British were able to remain standing because of their colonial empire
• Also, many countries, such as Prussia and Russia, wanted British manufactured goods--smuggling became the way of beating the system
• Eventually, Napoleon returned to war because the Continental System failed in its goals
• Despite appearances, the French were not invincible
• In 1803, a French expedition to retake the island of Saint Domingue in the Caribbean (now, the nations of Haiti and the Dominican Republic) failed, having succumbed to disease and fierce resistance
• Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, and the French decree abolishing slavery, the Haitians had rebelled in 1791
• The Haitian debacle had convinced Napoleon to abandon his dreams of re-establishing a French empire in  the Americas
• that same year [1803], the French sold their entire interest (actually the interest belonged to Spain, but the French controlled Spain)  in mainland North America, known as the Louisiana Territory, to the United States, thus paving the way for America's westward expansion.
• The "Spanish Ulcer"
• Spain represented an even bigger problem for Napoleon
• Napoleon tricked the Spanish king and prince to come to France, where he promptly imprisoned them
• He then proclaimed his brother, Joseph, king of Spain, and stationed over 100,000 French troops in and around Madrid
• But on May 2, 1808 (Dos de Mayo) the Spanish rose up in  rebellion
• French troops fired on a crowd in Madrid the following day (Tres de Mayo), setting off a series of popular  uprisings
• By July, a half starved French army was forced to surrender, again breaking the aura of Napoleonic invincibility
• Still, Napoleon controlled most of Spain and sought to gain control of Portugal
• To do this, he poured over 500,000 troops into Spain over the next few years
• but his generals still had trouble subduing the Spanish population
• British intervention
• The British viewed the Spanish uprising as an opportunity to weaken Napoleon
• They moved an army under Gen. Alfred Wellesley into Portugal to protect that country and to aid the Spanish guerillas (the word guerilla is Spanish for "little war"
• after five long, savage years of fighting (the Peninsula War, 1808-13), French troops were finally pushed back across the Pyrenees Mountains out of Spain
• Spain became to Napoleon the "Spanish Ulcer," a fatal illness to his plans
• The Russian Campaign of 1812
• The retreat from Spain came on the heels of Napoleon's disastrous Russian Campaign (1812-13)
• In July, 1812, Napoleon led a Grand Army of 600,000 men on its march eastward across central Europe and into Russia
• But the Russians avoided a direct confrontation with Napoleon's troops
• Instead, they steadily retreated towards Moscow, drawing the French in further
• Russian nobles abandoned their estates and burned their crops to the ground, leaving the Grand Army to operate far from its supply bases in territory stripped of food
• On September 14, 1812, Napoleon reached Moscow, but the city had been largely abandoned
• The Emperor hesitated, unable to decide whether to stay for the winter in Moscow or retreat back  towards France
• After a month of hesitation, he decided to leave Moscow, but the delay was costly -- it exacerbated the  food shortages, gave the Russians time to recuperate, and meant that the Grand Army would have to retreat during the harshest winter months
• The Defeat of Napoleon
• By the time Napoleon and the Grand Army made it back to Paris (1813), no more than 100,000 out of the original 600,000 troops survived, and Napoleon's days were numbered
• Napoleon believed he could still rely on his conscription machine to revive his fortunes, and so rebuffed offers by the British and their allies for a negotiated peace
• But a desperate call for 300,000 more men was met with resistance by the local authorities, who insisted that there were simply not enough able-bodied men left for recruitment
• Finally, an allied army of Great Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia defeated Napoleon at Lepzig (the Battle of the Nations) in October, 1813
• The following March, allied armies invaded Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate his throne
• He is sent off into exile to to the island of Elba (of palindrome fame), off the coast of Italy.
• The Hundred Days
• But Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France on March 1, 1815.  Perhaps surprisingly, he still had the support of the army, which restored him to power
• He claimed to be a changed man, ready to embrace a liberal constitution and a peaceful foreign policy
• However, his former adversaries (Great Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia) were skeptical
• This Quadruple Alliance mobilized to crush Napoleon one last time, which they do on June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo
• Napoleon was again sent off to exile (this time to the island of St. Helena, far off the coast of southwestern Africa-- much farther away), where he died in 1821.

• The Congress of Vienna
• With Napoleon's final defeat, the victorious members of the Quadruple Alliance set out to restore European monarchies and suppress the liberalism and nationalism of the French Revolution
• The leading architect of this conservative response was an Austrian aristocrat named Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
• At the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), Metternich and others redrew the map of Europe and created a system of alliances meant to stop further revolutionary movements and maintain a balance of power among the great nations of Europe
• Reaction in France
• In France, the decapitated king's brother, Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824) was made ruler
• But even with this "Bourbon Restoration" the new king ruled subject to a constitution, and most of the Napoleonic Code remained in force
• After Louis XVIII died in 1824, he was succeeded by another brother (Charles X), who tried to re-establish absolute rule
• After Charles' attempt to restore clerical and feudal privileges and impose strict censorship, the French people rose in revolt, forcing the king's abdication in 1830
• A cousin of Charles, Louis-Philippe (r. 1830-1848) took the throne
• He ruled as a "citizen king", subjecting himself to the constitution and avoiding royal pretense
• To Metternich and the other conservatives, the events in France were bad news
• They began to wonder whether their conservative vision for a post-Napoleonic Europe could be realized, or whether the people, once given a taste of equality, would continue their demands for reform
• Indeed, even the citizen-king Louis Philippe could not stave off this popular impulse
• He was toppled from his throne in 1848, a year of popular uprising throughout western and central Europe that we will return to soon.
• Reaction in Great Britain
• In Great Britain also, liberals demanded the extension of the franchise (the right to vote), as well as better conditions for  workers
• Conservatives at first tried to suppress protest and bar the formation of workers' organizations
• Protests turned violent in 1819, when soldiers fired on a crowd of 60,000 gathered on St. Peter's Field in Manchester
• However, aside from this "Peterloo Massacre" the movement toward a more democratic Great Britain was generally peaceful
• An 1832 Reform Act nearly doubled the number of males who were eligible to vote, and by 1884 suffrage (the right to vote) had been extended to all male householders
• Reaction in Russia
• In Russia, perhaps the most conservative of the old regimes, serfs would rise up in revolt nearly 2,000 times between 1826 and 1849
• The Russian czar, Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855) would ruthlessly repress worker, peasant and bourgeois movements, and serfdom would remain intact in Russia (as well as most of Eastern Europe) for some time
• The backwardness and repression of the east meant that when revolution would finally come to Russia during World War I (1914-1918), the result would be much more sweeping and radical
• More on the rise of Marxism, and the Russian Revolution, at a later date
• Reaction in Austria
• Even in Metternich's own Austria, the liberal and nationalist tides unleashed by the French Revolution could not be contained forever
• As we will see later, groups within the Austrian Empire would begin to agitate for their own right of self-determination, creating a volatile climate that would ultimately lead to World War I.
• For the time being, the conservatives maintained control over Europe--but it was a very shaky control