I.  European Warfare Comes to America

• Roots of the Seven Years War
• Struggle for control of continent between France and England -- discuss area controlled by Britain and France
• English fur traders began to venture into French controlled territory (western Penn, eastern Ohio--known as Ohio country) in 1752
• French began to build a series of fortifications to protect their fur bearing regions
• George Washington and Edward Braddock lead ill-fated missions in 1754 and 1755 against the French outposts, both parties beaten badly by French and Indian forces
• Britain declares war in 1756 after learning of Braddock fiasco
• Fighting of the war
• From 1757-1760, a combined British-Colonial force fought against the French and their native allies
• During this time, the British led forces captured all the major French outposts
• By 1763, France, Spain, and Britain signed the treaty of Paris
• France gave up all claim to its major holdings in North America
• Spain surrendered claim to Florida
• Impact of the war in North America
• France excluded from North America
• Native American tribes could no longer play the Europeans off against each other
• To prevent Indian uprisings, Britain issued Proclamation of 1763--no colonists past the headwaters of the Appalachian Mountains (Atlantic side)
• Colonists began to look at their situation in a new light
• an estimated 1/3 of New England men of military age fought in the war alongside the British
• most did not like what they saw
• class-separated army
• harsh discipline
• refusal to respect agreements made with colonials--such as terms of enlistment
• many of these men began to see British as tyrants

• Paying for the war
• Since the war began in colonies, and fought much for colonists sake, Britain expected colonies to bear significant portion of expense
• Lord Grenville, appointed prime minister in 1763 by the new King George III (of weak mind), decided to ask Americans to pay more for the upkeep of themselves and the British empire
• Sugar Act and Currency Act (1764)
• Sugar Act aimed at raising money and stopping widespread smuggling of sugar (in form of molasses)
• Currency Act outlaws (in effect) the use of colonial paper money, requiring hard money to be used
• "Real Whigs" and conspiracy theories
• Real Whigs saw themselves as true lovers of freedom in Britain
• Worried about a powerful government, especially one under one ruler (such as George III)
• warned that political power corrupts and must be feared
• only perpetual vigiliance by the public at large could preserve their cherished freedoms and liberties
• Real Whigs published numerous pamphlets and tracts, many of which were spread to America
• Real Whig concerns of tyrannical government fit in with colonial concerns about being represented
• colonial legislatures had developed sense of self-government
• British Parliament argued virtual representation, not actual representation was okay
• Colonists and British see government of colonies in a very different light
• Resistance to imperial edicts
• The Stamp Act of 1765
• Required tax stamps on most printed materials--newspapers, pamphlets, wills, deeds, playing cards, licenses for different occupations, notes for loans
• Tax had to be paid in specie
• Reaction to the Stamp Act
• James Otis, Jr.
• Virginia House of Burgesses
• Mobocracy
• Sons of Liberty (formed 1765)
• formed to organize resistance to Stamp Act
• made up of urban elite--lawyers, merchants, and tradesmen
• formed first in NYC, but had branches in other towns and cities along coast
• Stamp Act Congress (1765)
• intercolonial congress met in NYC in October
• purpose was to write a unified statement of protest--couched in conservative terms so as not to offend Parliament
• Nonimportation pact--informal agreements not to import British goods--enforced by threats and violence if needed
• Repeal of the Stamp Act, passage of Declaratory Act (1766)
• Repeal
• Change in British government--Lord Rockingham replaces Grenville as P.M.--signals change in position
• Stamp Act repealed
• Passage of Declaratory Act
• tied to repeal of Stamp Act
• decreed that Parliament had the authority to tax and legislate British colonies in North America in whatever manner or circumstances it chose
• didn't receive much attention
• Townshend Acts (1767)
• William Pitt replaces Rockingham
• Charles Townshend appointed to head the Exchequer (British treasury department)
• Townshend decides more monies needed from the colonies (debt from Seven Years War still outstanding)
• Gets Parliament to pass new revenue act named after him
• Puts duties on trade goods--glass, paper, cloth, and tea
• Duties were levied on goods from Britain, not other countries--differ from the Navigation Acts
• Duties meant to be used to pay salaries of royal officials in the colonies--formerly, colonial legislatures had paid these salaries
• Created American Board of Customs--to sit in Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston
• Boston a hotbed of trouble
• Massachusetts Assembly issued a circular letter to be sent to all colonial legislatures
• Called for a united front and a joint petition from all the colonies be sent to Parliament in protest
• Hillsborough, the British secretary of state for America ordered the Mass. governor to recall the letter, also ordered other royal governors to prevent their legislatures from discussing it
• Mass. assembly defied the order, along with a number of other colonial legislatures, which were disbanded by the royal governors
• This created a strong atmosphere of distrust and hostility toward royal governors
• Boston Sons of Liberty lead public protests against Townshend Acts, designed to garner widespread support for resistance
• Public rituals, pamphlets, and posters were designed to get as many people involved as possible
• Daughters of Liberty formed in some colonies to show their support of resistance
• usually led by women from prominent families
• making homespun, eating American food
• drinking coffee and herbal tea, not tea
• Call to boycott all British goods
• at least 1/4 of all British exports go to colonies
• division among colonists
• artisans and manufacturers support boycott
• merchants oppose boycott, trading good for them
• Lord North, new prime minister in 1770, gets Parliament to repeal Townshend Act taxes, except for tea--provision to pay royal officials from Britain remains in effect
• Boston Massacre (1770)
• British station two regiments of troops in Boston
• Troops compete with laborers for jobs (when off-duty)
• Troops very intrusive--searches, etc.
• March 2, workers attack troops--no serious harm
• March 5, workers pelt troops in front of customs house with snowballs, troops fire (despite orders), kill five
• John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr. defend troops, showing their respect for law to both sides--defendants acquitted or receive mild punishment
• Groups throughout the colonies seek to gather support for resistance with help of number of newspapers
• elites lead way, draw on Real Whig ideology
• Enslavement to Britain a common cry--contrast with slavery in colonies
• no calls for independence as yet, try to work out some form of compromise
• Committees of Correspondence
• first formed in Boston in late 1772
• led by Samuel and John Adams (distant cousins)
• urged collective action and sought to get consensus of all citizens, not just urbanites
• Boston group drew up a list of grievances that placed emphasis on American rights, with loyalty to Britain secondary
• support widespread from towns and villages
• Tea and Coercive Acts
• Tea Act (1773)
• Parliament passes Tea Act primarily to save the British East India Company from going bankrupt
• BEIC only authorized agent to sell tea in colonies, with portion of duties going to them
• In Boston, people protest to royal governor, Thomas Hutchinson, but he refuses to do anything
• Boston Tea Party (Dec. 1773)
• Meeting of 1/3 (5000) of Boston's population asks Hutchinson again to send tea back, he refuses
• that evening, 60 men disguised as Mohawks dump tea in harbor (10,000 Brit. Pounds worth)
• When North learns of Tea Party, passes Coercive Acts--closes port of Boston, limits trade, changes colonial charter, increases power of Gov. Hutchinson
• Quebec Acts--1774--Catholics more freedom in Quebec, also many lands in the Old Northwest ceded to Quebec
• Colonists now convinced of plot
• First Continental Congress (Sept. 1774)
• Met in Philadelphia--55 delegates representing mostly the elite factions of all 13 colonies
• Many were radicals, but some conservative leaders--such as Joseph Galloway (leading merchant from Philadelphia) also participated
• Congress rejected both radical and conservative proposals, settling on the Declaration of Rights and Grievances as a compromise
• declaration stated that colonists would obey "bona fide" acts of Parliament
• who decided whether the acts were bona fide?
• The Congress also created the Continental Association, to boycott British goods and also to not export goods to Britain or West Indies
• Other offshoots of the Congress were the new provinical legislatures (conventions) and Committees of Observation
• Lexington and Concord
• In April 1775, Thomas Gage (commanding British troops in Boston) received letter from the British secretary of state for America, Lord Dartmouth
• Dartmouth saw resistance leaders as unruly mob who would put up little fight if challenged
• Ordered Gage to arrest the main leaders--do so swiftly and silently
• April 18--Gage prepares to march his troops to Concord to caputre weapons cache (Paul Revere and William Dawes get on their horses)
• April 19
• On way to Concord, British are confronted by American militia on Lexington square--Brits fire several volleys
• British continue on to Concord--which they later regretted
• By nightfall of May 20, close to 20,000 colonial militia had gathered around Boston--although most left soon after for planting
• Siege of Boston
• Guns from Ticonderoga--Benedict Arnold
• June 17, 1775--Breed's Hill
• British send 2,200 regulars against American forces on Breed's Hill
• Americans repulse redcoats twice, but were beaten back on the third
• Redcoats lost 1,000 casualties, Colonials 400
• Boston remains under seige