HIS 122--U.S. Since 1865
Lecture # 6
Creating a New Order

I. Imperial America

Roots of expansionist sentiment

During late 19th century, U.S. shows growing interest in building an overseas empire
Reasons for this interest

religious leaders (and some racist leaders) argue that it is the divine mission of a superior United States to spread Christianity and civilization to inferior, backward races--(the "white man's burden")
example of what Japan and European nations are doing--seizing colonies in Africa and Asia--U.S. should flex its muscle
economic arguments that America needs to capture overseas markets for its industrial surplus and to supply raw materials
Alfred T. Mahan (Influence of Sea Power on History, 1890)

equates naval strength with national greatness
argues that U.S. needs overseas colonies to provide naval bases

A number of Republican leaders in government--Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Cabot Lodge, and John Hay--begin to urge the government toward expansionism

Getting our feet wet in the Pacific

First efforts at expansion come in 1889 when U.S. establishes a joint protectorate with Germany and Great Britain over the Samoan Islands
In 1893, American sugar planters in Hawaii overthrow Queen Liliuokalani

planters ask U.S. to annex the islands (make them a territory)
Pres. Grover Cleveland disapproves
in 1898, Pres. William McKinley and Congress decide to annex Hawaii, following the Spanish-American War

Spanish-American War

Crisis over Cuba

In 1895, Cubans revolt against Spanish rule

Spanish garrision commanded by Valeriano Weyler
used harsh methods in attempt to suppress rebellion--close to 200,000 Cubans died

U.S. investment in Cuba

during late 19th century, U.S. businesses had invested heavily in Cuba
owned 90% of sugar plantations--# 1 industry on the island
owners did not want to see revolution destroy their investments

"Yellow Journalism"

Cuban revolt received sensational coverage in American press
William Randolph Hearst's Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's World
coverage turns American opinion against "inhumane" Spanish

"Remember the Maine"

Feb. 15, 1898, U.S. battleship Maine explodes in Havana harbor--226 sailors killed
U.S. newspapers point finger at the Spanish
On April 11, Pres. McKinley asks Congress for declaration of war against Spain

Congress recognizes Cuba as independent nation
authorizes use of force to push out Spanish troops
Teller Amendment passed--states U.S. does not want control over Cuba

"A Splendid Little War" (John Hay) lasts three months--May-July 1898

Action begins on May 1 when Great White Fleet sails into Manila Bay (in the Philippines)

Americans destroy or capture the 10 ships in the Spanish fleet--1 American killed
U.S. Army occupies Manila in August

In late June, American troops land in Cuba

July 1, U.S. troops capture key Spanish positions guarding the stronghold at Santiago de Cuba
Two days later, Spanish navy in Cuba tries to break out of American blockade but fails
Spanish control over Cuba (and in Americas) ends
5,000 Americans died during the war--379 of them in combat, the rest to disease (especially malaria and yellow fever)

Treaty of Paris (1898)

Spain recognizes Cuba's independence
Gives control of Philipines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to U.S. in return for $20 million
U.S. remains in Cuba

Platt Amendment (1901)

authorizes American withdrawal from Cuba only if Cuba agrees to futures U.S. intervention whenever U.S. sees fit
promises to lease land at Guantanamo Bay to U.S. for 99 years (ends in 2000 AD)
Amendment remains in effect until 1934
U.S. reoccupies twice--1906-1909, 1912--to protect investments from instability

U.S. investments grow to $500 million by 1920

The Pacific and Asia

Guerrilla war in the Philipines

Business leaders and expansionists convince McKinley to keep Phillipines--near to Chinese market
1899, Filipino guerillas led by Emilio Aguinaldo revolt for Independence against U.S. army
War lasts four years, US loses over 4,000 men in combat, Filipinos at least 10,000 (more likely 50,000--counting civilian casualties)
U.S. forces occupy Philippines until July 4, 1946

"Open Door" Policy and China

1899, Sec. of State John Hay sends a series of Open Door notes to nations which have spheres of influence in China (Russia, Germany, France, Japan, and Britain)
Notes ask that all keep their Chinese ports open to trade with all nations, not give special privileges to merchants from their own country
Even as Open Door Notes circulate among various nations, Chinese anger at foreign exploitation explodes
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900)

Chinese attempts to throw out foreigners
Boxer rebels kill thousands of foreigners and Chinese Christians, occupy Beijing, and lay siege to district housing foreign embassies
In 1900, international army, including 2,500 U.S. marines, drive back the Boxers, rescue the Europeans, and proceed to sack Beijing

European nations and Japan want to partition China, but Hay issues a second set of Open Door Notes asking all countries to respect China's territorial integrity (China can be independent as long as it does what we want)
Open Door policy shapes U.S. response to Japanese agression in China during the 1930s and 1940s

Critics of Imperial America

A number of American intellectuals and politicians opposed American imperialism
Group included William Jennings Bryan, Jane Addams, and Mark Twain
In 1899, this group forms Anti-Imperialist League
League argues that imposing U.S. rule on other peoples by military force violates American ideals as express in the Declaration of Independence

The Panama Canal

U.S. wants a shortcut from Atlantic to Pacific
In 1901, U.S. makes Hay-Herran agreement with Colombia to take over lease for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama (then part of Colombia) from a bankrupt French company--Colombian senate refuses to ratify the treaty
Infuriated, Pres. Theodore Roosevelt conspires with the director of the bankrupt French company to start a revolution in Panama
In Nov. 1903, uprising in Panama against Colombian rule begins--T.R. sends U.S. warship to make sure Colombia cannot stop the revolt (Gunboat Diplomacy)
Panama declares independence, U.S. recognizes new country and negotiates a treaty with Panama for a ten-mile wide canal zone
Canal construction begins in 1906, completed in 1914
U.S. intervention in Latin America continues despite resentment over American methods and imperialim

America in the world

American continues to be actively involved in international affairs--limited to protecting what are seen as American interests
Latin America

Roosevelt Corollary--U.S. has right to intervene in Latin American countries to keep order and see that foreign debts are paid
Intervention in Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and Mexico (during Mexican Revolution from 1914-1917--most active in hunting for Pancho Villa)

II. Rise of Progressivism

Overview

Progressivism is a political response to industrialism and the social problems it creates
Compare with Populism

Populism primarily an agrarian movement, progressivism is primarily urban
populists reject much of industrial capitalism, progressives accept it but want to reform its worst abuses

Progressivism is not a united movement

some progressives concentrate on business regulation
some focus on laws to protect labor and the poor
other seek municipal-government reform and social control

Supporters of progressivism include native-born Protestant middle class, urban-immigrant political machines, some corporate leaders, and many public-citizen groups
Progressives attempt to be "scientific"--conduct social research, gather statistical data and expert testimony to back demands for reform

Intellectuals lay groundwork for progressivism

Intellectuals lay the ideological groundwork for progressivism by producing scholarly works that question the established order and support far-reaching changes
Thorstein Veblen

Theory of the Leisure Class (1899)
attacked the conspicuous consumption of American elites
argues that scientific efficiency and technical expertise is the best way to reform society

William James

Pragatism (1907)
argues that truth comes from experience, not universal laws or abstract theories--knowledge is fluid
emphasizes practical application, not abstract reasoning

Jane Addams

founder of Hull House reform movement
believed morality centered around individual not suitable for modern society, called for a new ideology based in an awareness of the complex interdependent relationships of society

John Dewey

Dewey leads way in educational change--calling his theory Instrumentalism
claims that schools must foster respect for democracy and cooperation
applied scientific method (Frederick Taylor) to education

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.

Justice Holmes ushered in new form of legal reasoning--called legal realism
criticized judges for over-relying on legal precedent for deciding cases
argued that law must evolve with society--base decisions on realities of society

Muckrakers

Muckraking journalists and novelists stimulate progressive movement by exposing political corruption, corporate wrongdoings, and "forgotten people" of the cities

novelists such as Theodore Dreiser--The Financier and Sister Carrie
Journalists such as Lincoln Steffens, who wrote about a number of corrupt urban political machines and bosses, and Ida Tarbell, who took on Standard Oil
Upton Sinclair, The Jungle (1906)

discuss Sinclair's original purpose for writing the book--to publicize the exploitation of immigrant workers
impact of book and regulation of food, drugs, and medicine--Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act passed in 1906

Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire in N.Y.C.

President Theodore Roosevelt thought these articles and books were too one-sided, thus he called the authors "muckrakers" after a character in John Bunyon's Pilgrim's Progress who raked filth all the time

Reforming the cities and states

Reforming the political process

battles against urban political bosses and machines
improving electoral process--secret ballot, direct primary, and Seventeenth Amendment (1913) providing for direct election of senators
improving city services--police, fire, sanitation; and getting corporations to pay fair share of taxes
improving housing codes and setting up public-health programs

Reforming the economy

industrial safety codes and workers' compensation plans, outlawing child labor
states move to place some limitations on big business--Wisconsin creates commission to regulate railroads and limits business contributions to political campaigns; New York regulates its banking and insurance industries
Role of businessmen in seeking and administering the new regulations

Reforming morals--the coercive dimension of Progressivism

imposing morality by law--demands for film censorship, ban on prostitution and "white slave" trade
prohibition

campaigns moved beyond temperance toward complete prohibition of alcoholic beverages
organizations such as Anti-Saloon League and Women's Christian Temperance Union led the efforts
Eighteenth Amendment passed in 1918--prohibited manufacture, sale, and transport of alcoholic beverages--led to big increase in organized crime in U.S.
discuss in relation to illegality of drugs today, efforts to keep people from using them, and organized crime that surrounds them

eugenics movement

human beings and society can be improved by controlled breeding
a few states legalize the forced sterilizaton of criminals, sex offenders, and mentally impaired ("three generations of idiots are enough")

Progressives and racism

immigration restriction--in 1917, Congress passes literacy requirements aimed at slowing immigration; in 1921 put quotas on immigration
many progressives are racist
nationwide racism reaches its peak during the 1910s
Theodore Roosevelt has mixed record, Wilson openly condones segregation and discrimination practiced by federal government
southern progressives lead movement to entrench Jim Crow segregation

(Re)forming the role of women in American society

Origins of Women's suffrage movement

turn of the century brought renewed effort for suffrage among middlle-class women--especially those who saw uneducated men voting all the time
still, as late as 1910, women could only vote in four western states
the South and East coast states (w/exception of New York in 1917) held firm against women voting

organized efforts for suffrage

National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

led first by Susan B. Anthony, then followed by Carrie Chapman Catt in 1900
efforts focused on lobbying, organized marches and rallies, and informational efforts
most members were native-born, middle-class, urban whites (mainstream progressives)
stressed women's special "purity" and its impact on electoral process

Congressional Union (Woman's Party)

founded in 1913, led by Alice Paul, and influenced by militancy of British suffragist movement
attempted to bring direct pressure on federal government to pass an amendment granting suffrage to women

Nineteenth Amendment

combined efforts of women's groups and their supporters lead to 19th amendment being passed in 1919
ratified in 1920, women voted that year for first time nationwide

Challenges to the "private sphere" of women

Margaret Sanger--nurse who fought hard to get legalized birth control in N.Y.--was battled strongly by northeastern ministers
Emma Goldman--lectured nationwide on feminism and politics, also edited Mother Earth (a radical--some said anarchist--monthly magazine
Despite challenges brought by these women, it would not be until the 1920s that large numbers of women in North really began to challenge exsisting mores of society

Women and politics in the 1920s

the promise of power in the 19th Amendment proved illusory to women during the 1920s
Women's movement splinters apart

some women's groups push for an equal rights amendment, while others viciously condemn it as putting women in unnatural positions
Jane Addams supports an international league promoting peace and freedom worldwide--she is condemned as a communist sympathisizer
At same time, Supreme Court strikes down a number of child-labor laws and women's protective laws

Progressivism in the White House

Theodore Roosevelt's administration

T.R. comes to the White House

served as McKinley's V.P., became President in 1901 after McKinley assassinated
T.R. worked to enlarge the power of the presidency, made easier by a weak Congress

T.R. monitors the corporations

Roosevelt a friend of big business, but believes that largest corporations must obey the law and work toward public good
1902, the administration begins to sue corporations under Sherman Anti-Trust Act

first case is Northern Securities, which Supreme Court orders dissolved in 1904
43 other corporations are sued under the Sherman Act during Roosevelt's first term of office

in addition, during T.R.'s administration, the FTC and the Pure Food and Drug Act passed, the Hepburn Act gives ICC power to regulate RR's, and TR also gets coal miners union and mine owners to agree to arbitration in settling strike (following his policy of not sending in troops to break up strikes)
despite T.R.'s efforts to regulate business, he was still seen as friend of big business by most--why?--business wanted regulations, especially against big trusts and "rotten apple" companies who were seen as villains by society

Conserving the environment

By 1900, land use had become a big political issue

business interests want to continue unrestricted development for private gain
preservations wish to save large wilderness tracts for their beauty and spiritual worth
conservationists, including Gifford Pinchot, chief of Forest Service under TR, seek scientific management by government to make public domain serve people's resource needs

Roosevelt popularizes both conservation and preservation

sets aside 200 million acres of forest and mineral rich lands for government-managed use, not private sale
creates 53 wildlife reserves and five new national parks
keeps environmental issues before the public eye

In 1904, TR recieves Republican nomination for President

this nomination comes despite the Roosevelt administration's regulatory activities--shows how limited the activities were
TR easily beats Alton B. Parker, the Democratic candidate, to win reelection

William H. Taft as president

Election of 1908

in 1908, William Howard Taft receives Republican nomination for president (after TR honors pledge not to run again, and with TR's backing)
Democrats nominate William Jennings Bryan (again--3d time)
Taft easily wins a lackluster campaign

Taft's policies

Taft continues anti-trust campaign, actually more vigorously and successfully than TR (but does not get publicity)
Taft supports raising tariff on imported goods
He disagrees with much of TR's preservationist policies, fires Gifford Pinchot from Forest Service

Divisions among the Republicans

the Republican party becomes divided into progressive ("Insurgent") and conservative wings
in 1910, TR denounces conservatives
throws his support to a revived progressive reform program
he calls the program the New Nationalism--a program that would make the federal government a more powerful agent of reform--including regulation of business

III. Corporate Liberalism triumphant

Woodrow Wilson as president

Election of 1912

the election of 1912 became a four-way race

Taft ran on Republican ticket
TR ran as the Progressive (or "Bull Moose") candidate
Democrats chose the progressive governor of New Jersey, Woodrow Wilson, as their candidate
Socialist party run Eugene V. Debs--labor organizer

TR runs on his New Nationalism platform, Wilson on the New Freedom (limited power in Washington, return to competition among small and medium-sized businesses)
Although Wilson only receives 42% of popular vote, he easily outpolls other candidates in popular vote and landslide in the electoral vote--Taft's defeat worst ever for sitting president
Debs, garners over 900,000 votes and 6.1% of total--reflects continued dissatisfaction with conventional parties

Woodrow Wilson--background

Wilson a southern Presbyterian minister's son, former political science prof and president of Princeton, governor of NJ
often a skilled and flexible, Wilson would demonstrate he also had an intolerant, self-righteous side about him

Economic measures

In 1914, Wilson pushes the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act through Congress

FTC a federal regulatory agency with power to uncover unfair methods of business competition, issue cease and desist orders
Clayton Act

supplements Sherman Anti-Trust Act by defining and listing specific illegal business practices
clause in Clayton Act exempts union strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing from prosecution under antitrust laws
Workman's Compensation Act gives accident and injury coverage to federal employees

In 1916, Wilson helps farmers obtain low-interest loans with Federal Farm Loan Act and Federal Warehouse Act

Wilson wins reelection

1916 election pits Wilson against Charles Evans Hughes (candidate for newly reunited Republican party)
Wilson edges out Hughes for reelection

Problems in Europe

The coming of World War I

underlying causes: expansionism, aggressive nationalism, system of rival alliances, idea that war brings out best in men and countries
1914, war triggered when a Serbian nationalist assassinates Archduke Ferdinand, heir to Austrian throne

Initial responses in U.S.

Wilson proclaims U.S. will remain neutral
Asks American people to be neutral in thought as well as in action
Most Americans agree U.S. should stay out of war, but few are neutral in thought

majority favors Britain and its allies
German and Irish-Americans side with Germany

Neutrality

U.S. abandons neutrality in 1917
Wilson attempted at first to maintain neutral position, but warring sides abroad and at home push him toward war

Britain blockades German ports and mines North Sea, Germany retaliates with U-Boats
For three years war grinds on in Europe, American press filled with stories of German atrocities
At home, National Security League (mainly consisting of bankers and industrialists) and Theodore Roosevelt push for military buildup, expecting war with Germany
Many at home advocate peace--Feminist leaders, including Jane Addams and Carrie Chapman Catt, help organize Women's Peace party and try to negotiate end to war; German-Americans, social-justice reformers, socialists urge neutrality

The Great War

Entering the war

In Feb. 1917, Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare--Wilson breaks diplomatic relations with Germany; Zimmerman Telegram (proposed German alliance with Mexico)
April 1917, Wilson asks Congress for declaration of war; Congress does so by wide margin (with some vigorous dissent)

Mobilizing for the war

U.S. not ready for war--120,000 man army had little combat experience, little in way of equipment and munitions, officer corps old and in bad shape
Selective Service Act (May 1917) drafted 3 million men into service

Mobilizing the economy

Washington creates numerous special wartime agencies that impose unprecedented regulations on business and civilians
War Industries Board created in 1917 (headed by Wall Street speculator Bernard Baruch)--responsible for establishing production priorities and introducing efficient production practices (doesn't become effective until right at war's end)
Herbert Hoover placed in charge of Food Administration--responsible for overseeing production of foodstuffs and convincing civilians to conserve food and fiber
Government also takes over and runs all railroads during the war

Selling the war to the public

Wilson tried to get entire nation behind war effort
George Creel headed the Committee on Public Information, using posters, movies, public speakers, and advertisements to push war effort
Secty of Treas William McAdoo used advertising techniques and propaganda to sell war bonds (which pay for 2/3ds of war costs) and get people to accept increased fed income taxes

Support for the war at home

Supporters of the war included many progressives, muckrakers, teachers, and intellectuals

they argue that America can use the war to further liberalism and democracy at home and abroad

Brooking no opposition
Creel's committee becomes so successful that it produces anti-German hysteria and hatred of anyone questioning America's wartime role
German-Americans victimized; antiwar radicals verbally and physically attacked (most of this comes against Socialists and East Europeans after communist takeover in Russia)
Despite economic and physical threats, some Americans do oppose the war

German and Irish Americans, religious pacifists, and socialists
Socialists see war as crusade to protect capitalists' markets and investments; see no reason for workers to die to enrich their bosses
Some people point out, that rather than spread liberalism, war is killing reform and unleashing intolerances

Suppressing dissent

Government attempts to silence dissent with Espionage and Sedition Acts (1917 & 1918)--becomes illegal to criticize the war, government, the Constitution, or the armed forces (especially the draft)
Hundreds of pacifists and socialist jailed, including Eugene V. Debs
Supreme Court in 1919 upholds constitutionality of Espionage and Sedition Acts (still law today)

Fighting in France

2 million soldiers serve in the AEF during 1917-1918
At first, Americans played little role, but help stop German drive on Paris in 1918, then join the counteroffensive
26,000 Americans die in one campaign alone, but just a small fraction of the number of British, French, and German soliders killed during the war
Nov 1918, Germany surrenders

Changes war brings to economy and society

Boom for Industry and Agriculture

American economy booms in wartime
factory production and prices soar
real income of unskilled workers and farmers rise
Flood of job seekers in industrial cities strains housing, schools, and municipal services

African American migration to the North (The "Great Migration")

War reduces immigration from Europe, so U.S. factories recruit southern blacks to fill labor needs
Hoping to escape southern racism and find good jobs, 500,000 African Americans migrate to the North (by 1920, number had grown to 1.5 million)
Northern whites resent black newcomers, who compete for jobs and housing
Return of soldiers means increased competition over jobs, etc.
Race riots break out--in Chicago, New York, and East St. Louis
Riots continue after the war, with worst being in Chicago in 1919

Women and equality

Women's rights activists hope war will lead to female equality
11,000 women serve in non-combat roles in armed forces; over 1 million join industrial work force
Once war ends and men return home, women lose most of their wartime gains

The perils of peace

Bittersweet victory

Jan 1918, Wilson presents a peace plan in speech to Congress

became known as the Fourteen Points
Points included self-determination for the peoples of Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, impartial adjustment of colonial claims, freedom of the seas, reduced armaments, and a world association of nations

War ends after German revolutionaries overthrow the government, proclaim a republic, and sign an armistice treaty with the Allies
Wilson head U.S. delegation to Versailles Peace Conference (includes only one Republican, even though they control Congress)
European allied leaders basically ignore Wilson's efforts to get 14 Points peace plan implemented--they blame Germany for the war, disarm the country, strip away all its colonies, and saddle the nation with heavy reparations (war debt)
U.S. Congress unhappy with way peace treaty written, refuses to ratify (Wilson suffers massive stroke while on speaking tour to rally support for the treaty)
Congress also rejects any notion that U.S. will join newly formed League of Nations

Reds -- anticommunist panics

After Communist Party comes to power in Russia, U.S. sends troops (along with 13 other nations) to participate in unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the new government
At home, a rash of postwar strikes (by union workers who had agreed to go without any raises during the war years) and a series of bombings convince Americans the nation is on verge of communist uprising
Attorney Gen Mitchell Palmer leads raids on homes and meetings of suspected radicals (anyone who might be considered deviant)

more than 4,000 people arrested (some actually involved in the bombings or planning anarchist attacks)
most Russian-born aliens deported

Red-scare calms down in the early 1920s, but the F.B.I. was created to help stem any more possible threats to internal security