Lecture # 10

HIS 122 - U.S. Since 1865
Lecture # 11
Struggles for Equality

I. Civil Rights Movement

Differing views of what causes racism develop following WWII

one viewpoint argued that racism was economic and class based--could only be cured through economic equality
the other group viewed it as cultural and individual--could be handled by education
the differing views on causes of racism to a large degree shape the efforts at trying to end it

NAACP and educational/legal actions

the predominant view of the NAACP was that racism could be solved through education and integration

solution was to open the way for African Americans to enter white society and through contact and education, racism would end
burden of desegregation under this idea placed on blacks--move into white society would have to come from middle-class, professional African Americans
this idea fits makeup of NAACP, composed primarily of middle-class, northern blacks

NAACP and the Federal Government

NAACP focused its efforts in the 1940s and 1950s on the federal government

following WWII, put pressure on Pres. Truman to urge desegregation
Truman does desegregate military, but hesitates in other areas
only when he needs the support of northern blacks during 1948 election does he and Democrats adopt strong civil rights stance (this causes many southern Dems to bolt party and form Dixiecrats--Strom Thurmond)

NAACP and the U.S. Supreme Court

1950, NAACP wins two cases in Supreme Court involving segregated universities

McLaurin v. Oklahoma Bd. of Regents--ruled that African-American man must be admitted to OU because no other universities in state offered graduate degree he sought (discuss McLaurin's treatment)
Sweatt v. Painter--struck down Texas' attempt to create a separate law school for African Americans, ruling that such a school was unequal because of intangibles

Brown vs. Board of Education

biggest effort came in 1952, when the Supreme Court agreed to hear five cases regarding public school desegregation (combined under name of Brown v. Bd. of Education, Topeka, Kansas)
case originally heard by S.C. in 1952, but because of change in Chief Justices (Earl Warren takes over from Frederick Vinson), case reheard in 1953
arguments in Brown directly attacked "separate but equal" concept from Plessy v. Ferguson
NAACP lawyers, led by Thurgood Marshall used sociological and psychological research to argue that separate schools created inherently unequal education
after six months of deliberation, SC returned an unanimous verdict ruling that segregated schools were inherently unequal--ordering schools to desegregate (no time frame set)
1955, as schools have not desegregated immediately, Supreme Court rules in Brown v. Bd. II that the must do so "with all deliberate speed"

Reactions to Brown decisions

Pres. Eisenhower does not move to support the Supreme Court's decision in Brown--in fact, publicly calls his appointment of Earl Warren to Supreme Court worst mistake he ever made
in fact, federal agencies hindered desegregation more than they helped--FBI was obstructionist, departments of Agriculture and Housing allowed segregation in their policies
Southern congressmen blocked any legislative response--1955, 100 southern members of Congress sign Southern Manifesto calling Brown a "clear abuse of judicial power"

Massive Resistance

Encouraged by Eisenhower's lack of response, and Congressional hostility, southern states launch "massive resistance"
massive resistance based largely on theory of interposition and states' rights

state governments argued that federal government was invading the rights of state citizens and therefore, it was duty of state to step in and interpose
southern states believed that if rest of country saw how determined South was they would give up idea of desegregation
State legislators in South passed laws banning desegregated schools (these laws quickly expanded to cover many social situations)

For a time, federal government (including SC) did nothing
Little Rock

1957, school board of Little Rock, Ark. sought to follow the Brown ruling (as ordered by local federal court)
Gov. Orville Faubus decided to oppose desegregation, calling out the Ark. National Guard when 9 African-American children attempt to enroll at Central High School
action created a crisis

local federal court ordered Faubus to remove National Guard, he refused--mobs attacked high school when black children returned to the school
Eisenhower did not want to get involved, but could not stand the negative publicity of mobs roaming streets of Little Rock
President nationalized National Guard and sent U.S. airborne troops to the city, enforcing the desegregation order

Following year, to prevent desegregation, Gov. Faubus ordered all Little Rock public schools closed--Virginia's governor did the same when courts ordered that state's schools to desegregate

School closings create a crisis in the South

battle between "New South" advocates and traditionalists

New South forces primarily urban middle-class (with large number of women), against rural Old Guard traditionalists

New South supporters organized number of Save Our Schools (S.O.S.) campaigns, which politicians had to pay attention--argued simply to keep schools open, not for desegregation (although desegregation would have to happen if schools open)

Desegregation in Georgia

First major school system in Georgia to desegregate was Atlanta city schools in 1961
UGA

1961, federal court orders UGA to allow two black students to enter--Hamilton Holmes and Charlene Hunter (Gault)
University initially closed, but finally opened
Law students at UGA organized a riot, well-planned in advance

demonstrated and threw rocks at Gault's dorm room window
campus police only ones to respond
state troopers came in later, and took one student into custody--Hunter

Mississippi and Alabama

Ole Miss much harder to integrate--gunfights broke out between U.S. marshalls and rioters
U. Alabama desegregated in 1963, signalling collapse of massive resistance

Massive resistance collapsed earlier in big cities than in rural areas--towns and counties of Deep South didn't desegregate until after 1964 Civil Rights Act

Mass black civil rights activism--1950s

First major mass black incursion into Civil Rights came with the bus boycotts in Alabama

Boycotts began in Montgomery on Dec. 1, 1955, when Rosa Parks refused to move further back on a segregated bus

Parks arrested by Montgomery poice and charged with violating city ordinances
Although Parks quickly released on bail, African American community gathered that night to discuss how to handle situation
Women's Political Council (modelled after League of Women Voters) lead way in trying to organize resistance to what the women see as unfair treatment on busses (describe treatment)
four days later, Parks found guilty and fined $14.00

That night black community in city formed Montgomery Improvement Association--MLK becomes president of Association (eloquent speaker and new -- not involved in community infighting)

plans made for 1 day boycott to emphasize the demands of black citizens
news of proposed boycott leaks out
planning for transportation key issue for organizers

Montgomery Improvement Association made three initial demands

first come, first served in separate sections
courteous bus drivers
hire black drivers on predominantly black routes
will boycott busses until demands are met

MIA did not originally work with the NAACP because the latter organization was thought too radical by many blacks in the city--a conservative movement when it started
King and city officials meet and almost reach agreement, but bus company officials (in Detroit) refused to hire black bus drivers
Boycott continued--four black churches and number of private homes were bombed
MIA stiffens its demands, calling for desegregation on the busses
A year after it began, a court ordered desegregation of the busses
Boycotts follow in five other cities across the South

Martin Luther King, Jr.

comes out of Montgomery as a leader of Civil Rights movement
King based his arguments on moral (Christian duties) which he saw as overriding man-made law
felt that people had a duty to obey moral law, even if it conflicted with laws made by governments
King also believed that violence should never be used to support moral law
King's strategy was to get people to face the irrationality of segregation and racism by confronting them and making them think
called this strategy "creative tension"
he believed that he had to use mass movements to fully develop creative tension and get media attention
For the most part, King sought to get open doors for African Americans to enter mainstream society
For all the success of the boycotts, massive resistance took center stage over the next 4 or 5 years, forcing other civil rights efforts into background

Civil Rights Movement in early 1960s

Sit-ins change the movement

Greensboro

in February 1960, 4 African-American students at N.C. A&T launch movement in 1960s by sitting down in the "white's only" section of the lunch counter of the Greensboro Woolworth's
next day, large group of black students sat down at the lunch counter--store manager closed the counter
several days later, a few women from Greensboro Women's College joined the blacks
after a few weeks, Woolworth's agreed to integrate the lunch counters

movement quickly spread throughout N.C. and into Virginia and S.C.--forcing many businesses to integrate their services
Reasons for sit-ins

as African Americans became more educated during the 1950s, they became more discontent with lower station they were assigned
found themselves with education but no opportunity to enter the job market in white world

Sit-in movement comprised primarily of black college students

involved young, well-educated, upwardly mobile blacks who were discontent with no economic opportunities
sit-ins got the civil rights movement into full swing

Organizing sit-in participants

although sit-in movement was spontaneous, people interested in civil rights began to think more about organizing the protests
the SCLC, led by Martin Luther King, Jr., attempted to organize black youth

SCLC grew out of the black churches (Baptist predominantly) throughout the South
it served as an umbrella organization for a number of local groups
SCLC goes to N.C. A&T to organize the students, but students unwilling to join SCLC

SNCC

Instead, students form SNCC in spring of 1960s (Ella Parks--aid to King--helps organize)

SNCC tries to orchestrate the sit-ins, but that doesn't work
so organization decides to open sit-in movement into rural areas and organize rural voting efforts for blacks
becomes a full-time organization by 1961

SNCC's efforts

SNCC's people worked at organizing groups in non-college, non-urban areas (workers usually paid $10-20 per week

number of full-time workers grew from 40 in 1960 to 1,000 in 1964

Idea behind its efforts was to leave functioning civil rights organizations at the local level after organizers left
SNCC tried to avoid violence, but it often came their way--helped a little by Kennedy administration who worked to keep U.S. image clean and domestic violence to a minimum
SNCC sets up Voter Education Project as way to provide money for organizing

SNCC separates from other efforts

people in SNCC become increasingly disdainful of MLK's tactics of coming in, grabbing headlines, and then leaving
they also grow more distrustful of the federal government and its lack of effort to stop the violence
begin to picket the Justice Department in 1961
still, SNCC was dependent to a degree on the FBI's minimal protection and federal economic support for their activities
SNCC gradually becomes more radical and demands changes in the federal system

CORE becomes one of SNCC's biggest allies

CORE led by James Farmer
as freedom rides began in 1962, CORE increasingly focused on the South
CORE'S membership also undergoes much change--originally a mainly white, middle-class group, more blacks join CORE and begin to lead organization
CORE adopts the tactics of SNCC of focusing on local people

While SNCC concentrates on Alabama and Mississippi, CORE focuses on Louisiana

Mississippi Freedom Summer

As SNCC grows more disenchanted with the efforts of MLK, they decide to carry out their own campaign
Decide to work on breaking the deadlock in Mississippi--led to creation of "Miss. Freedom Summer"
White and black college students were to work together to integrate southern communities

SNCC believed the North would pay attention if it were northern white kids who got beaten and killed
most volunteers who participated in Freedom Summer were college students, trained by SNCC at Ohio University

3 workers (1 black, 2 white) killed at Philadelphia, Miss.

Johnson sends FBI to Miss. to find out what happened
six men accused of committing the murders (none tried for murder in state court)
men tried for Civil Rights violations in federal court--county sheriff and 2 deputies found guilty and sentenced to jail

Violence erupted against the participants of Freedom Summer and local blacks on a massive scale (homes bombed and burned, beatings, etc.)
this conflict between whites and blacks led SNCC toward concept of "black power"
other conflicts within SNCC (north-south and male-female) created great tensions within SNCC
most of the northern students active in Mississippi Freedom Summer later became leaders in student protests against Vietnam and in the feminist movement

March on Selma

last great effort by SNCC was to organize the march on Selma in 1965
as before, NAACP and the SCLC came in and took over the effort
the violence against the marchers at Selma exceeded anything at Birmingham in 1963

Sheriff Jim Clark and the Alabama State Patrol led brutal attacks against the marchers
2 northern whites murdered while participating in the march--a minister and a Detroit housewife

events were captured on national news shows and spread throughout the U.S.
Selma march helped convince Congress to pass the 1965 Voting Rights Act
However, march on Selma split Civil Rights Movement apart

Birmingham, Alabama (1963)

In April, 1963, Martin Luthern King and the SCLC helped launch a series of nonviolent demonstrations in Birmingham in effort to desegregate public facilities in the city
Birmingham unsurpassed in its commitment to segregation
Police Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor personally supervised effort to break up the marches

Connor's police used police dogs, tear gas, clubs, electric cattle prods, and fire hoses to break up the demonstrations

Television cameras caught the violence and broadcast it to a national audience
These televised protest activities brought the Civil Rights movement outside the South
Demonstrations took place in a number of other cities throughout the nation in support of the Birmingham marchers
Despite support of much of the nation, the Birmingham protests had little effect on the city
Finally, King makes a desperate move, and allows school children to join in the marches

Connor orders police to treat them the same as every other marcher
Morale in police department collapses when police forced to use violence against children--it was not what they had been hired to do

Birmingham's white leadership agreed to compromise with the civil rights marchers

compromise not secure
threatened for a while by bombings of black motels and churches (four girls killed in one attack), efforts of KKK and white supremacists, and black response to these attacks

March on Washington

In August 1963, 250,000 demonstrators marched down the Mall in D.C. to support civil rights
highlight of demonstration was MLK's "I have a Dream" speech
march was a high-water mark of the peaceful, interracial civil rights movement--and one of the last moments of real harmony within it

Impact of mass protests

at first, civil rights protest had little impact on federal government activities
A Civil Rights Act passed the House of Reps. in 1963, but was stopped in Senate by a filibuster
Kennedy reluctant to push to hard, fearing that to do so would alienate southern congressmen from supporting other programs he wanted to pass
Following JFK's assassination in Nov. 1963, mood changed, and LBJ able to get Congress to pass Civil Rights Act in 1964
the next year, Voting Rights Act passed

Origins of split among Civil Rights groups

different groups--SNCC, CORE, NAACP, and NUL (National Urban League)

NAACP led by Roy Wilkens
NUL led by Whitney Young, later Ralph Abernathy
NAACP sitll focused on needs of middle-class African Americans in the North

saw only problem was to get rid of white prejudice
for the NAACP, they felt a major victory had been won
NAACP saw King and SNCC as radicals who grabbed headlines, caused trouble, and left the NAACP to clean up the mess

National Urban League worked with elite whites in encouraging black employment in the cities (mostly northern cities)
Federal government preferred to work with NAACP and the NUL
Southern blacks prefereed the SCLC and SNCC

Civil Rights movement never achieves an overall organization

NAACP and NUL remained conservative and middle-class--aim is to change white attitudes and move into mainstream American life
SCLC stood in the middle of the road
SNCC and CORE stood as the radical element of the civil rights movement

Racial problems continue

Although middle-class blacks saw themselves as having won major victories in civil rights activities, serious problems still faced the majority of blacks throughout the nation
Watts (1965)

Aug. 1965, in the Watts district of L.A., riots explode
34 people killed and 1000 injured
much damage from burning and looting
many asked why blacks were burning down central LA when they had won the war in Congress
Answer was that Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 had done little to help the condition of people living in the inner cities

After Watts riot, King and the SCLC decide to try non-violent protest in northern cities

in 1966, King and his follwoers move to Chicago to get the blacks in city to join in non-violent protest
Chicago's blacks wanted better housing, but were limited to ethnic enclaves
marches met with widespread resistance from whites and from blacks who weren't always willing to be non-violent
march to Chicago suburb of Cicero truned ugly as blacks and whites confronted each other, violent action barely avoided
King claims that white hatred in Chicago was worse than in Alabama
Chicago campaign demonstrated that racism was not just a southern problem, but a national one

As the issues facing civil rights movement became harder to define (good housing and jobs), the groups were less able to focus their efforts on an effective way to solve them
During a march across Mississippi in June 1966, the leadership of SNCC, CORE, and the SCLC became completely divided

King and his people shouted "freedom now," Stokely Carmichael and leaders of CORE shouted "black power"
debate over goals and tactics continued throughout the march
Carmichael argued that it was time that blacks took control of their own destinies and communities--driving out white landlords and police who abused them

Carmichael and others in SNCC and CORE turned increasingly to self-help as the way to solve the problems facing the black community

idea behind this was to build power in such a way as to be able to negotiate with whites as equals, not as someone going begging
Carmichael argued that all integration had done was to siphon the top black leaders into the white system, therefore, blacks should act alone and take responsibility for keeping their communities in line
Black Panthers grew out of the Black Power movement

formed by Bobby Seals, Eldridge Cleaver, and Huey Newton
became a para-military unit that would act as a police force in the ghettoes
quickly infiltrated by law enforcement agencies from all over
confrontations between Panthers and law enforcement officers often led to shoot-outs
As violence grew, SNCC and CORE declined in power and authority

End of Civil Rights era

Civil Rights movement at an impasse by 1968
many problems remained, but fixing these problems meant a major change in all of American society
most Americans unwilling to make these changes
Riots continued in cites across the nation--43 in 1966, 8 in 1967 (including the Detroit riots in which 43 people killed)
In April 1968, King leads march to help get better pay and working conditions for garbage collectors in Memphis, Tenn.

April 4, King assassinated
riots break out in more than 60 cities--43 people killed, 3,000 injured, and 27,000 arrested

II. Feminist Movement

during the 1950s, popular culture portrayed career women as unfulfilled; homemakers and mothers were the ideal

as women tried to meet this ideal, fewer women went to college or sought higher-paying jobs--women constituted a smaller percentage of college students in the 1950s than in 1920s and 1930s
by 1960, 40% of women continue to work outside of the home, but they mostly held poorly paid, dead-end jobs
feminist movement at a low ebb during the decade

Resurgence of feminist movement in the 1960s

1963, Betty Friedan's The Feminist Mystique is published--it articulates the growing unhappiness of middle-class white women with the 1950s emphasis on motherhood and domesticity

reactions to book mixed among women

1966, National Organization for Women (NOW) founded--it lobbies for women's full economic and social equality
Activist women establish women's consciousness-raising sessions, health collectives, and day-care centers for children of working women
women also demonstrate for equal rights and legal abortions

successes

amendments to Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbidding discrimination on basis of gender
heightened political awareness and power
legalization of birth control in all states (Griswold v. Conn., 1963)
legalization of abortion with Roe v. Wade (1973)

problem areas

economic parity not achieved--job advancement still difficult, most working women paid less than men
movement not widespread--still basically comprised of middle-class white women
ERA passes Congress in 1972, 28 states ratify quickly, but amendment fails to get enough votes for ratification

III. Native Americans and Latinos

1950s

During the 1950s, Latinos and Indians are among the poorest, most discriminated-against minorities in America
Number of Lations in U.S. grows rapidly

more than 1 million Puerto Ricans and people from the island of Hispianola migrate to New York and other Northeastern cities
Mexican-Americans also grow in number as farmers in Southwest seek cheap labor to harvest crops

1/3d of Mexican-Americans live below the poverty level
millions of mojados (wetbacks) that crossed the border, combined with the over 1/2 million braceros (temporary workers) brought in legally each year, drove wages down as labor in plentiful supply

Native Americans remained the forgotten minority group in America

poorest of any group of American people
between 1900 and 1930, over half the lands owned by tribal governments had been lost to whites
In 1953, cattle, timber, and mining interests that wanted Indian lands convinced Congress to pass House Resolution 108

ended Indians' status as wards of the United States
granted them U.S. citizenship
called for liquidation of the reservation system and termination of special federal services to tribes
over 500,000 acres of valuable Native American lands sold to non-Indians

Between 1953 and 1960, 60,000 Indians (almost 10% of total) left the reservations, most ended up living in urban slums

2. Movements of the 1960s and 1970s

During the 1960s, Native Americans and Latinos also begin to organize to raise group pride and to fight for better living conditions through use of both nonviolence and threats of force

Native Americans

1968, Indian activists start the American Indian Movement (AIM)

demand payment for lands stolen by whites
teaching of Native American studies at schools and colleges
by late 1960s, early 1970s, AIM militance (Alcatraz and Wounded Knee) brings changes in the destructive policy of termination (ending tribal life on reservations)

1974, Indian Self-Determination Act grants tribes right to administer government-aid programs and schools on their reservations
Native Americans also win important court cases--winning monetary awards for land wrongfully take during the 19th century
still, Native Americans struggle with high unemployment, alcoholism, and disease (TB and cancer)

Latinos also form a number of organizations during the 1960s

best known is the United Farm Workers Union, organized in early 60s by Cesar Chavez
Chavez also uses nonviolent protest methods to improve living conditions and ethnic pride of Latinos
number of more militant young Latinos (mostly Chicanos) join Alianza and La Raza groups, calling for "Chicano Power"